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Khānābād, situated in the Kunduz province of Afghanistan, occupies a geographically complex position within the broader Central Asian landscape. Located at approximately 36.68°N, 69.16°E and an elevation of roughly 400 meters above sea level, the city rests within a relatively flat alluvial plain carved by the Kunduz River. This riverine setting, while providing a vital water source, also contributes to localized humidity and potential fog formation, impacting air quality dynamics. The surrounding terrain is characterized by gently rolling hills and agricultural fields, primarily dedicated to wheat, cotton, and other staple crops. This proximity to intensive agricultural zones introduces a significant source of particulate matter, particularly during planting and harvesting seasons, due to dust resuspension and the burning of crop residues – a common, albeit environmentally damaging, practice. Khānābād’s position along established trade routes has historically fostered economic activity, and while industrial development remains limited compared to larger Afghan cities, small-scale workshops and processing facilities exist, contributing localized emissions. The urban–rural gradient transitions rapidly, with agricultural land dominating the immediate periphery. The lack of significant topographic barriers around Khānābād means that pollutants tend to disperse horizontally rather than being trapped, although temperature inversions, common during colder months, can significantly alter this pattern. The regional climate, characterized by hot summers and cold winters, further influences the behaviour of airborne pollutants, impacting their concentration and transport.

Khānābād’s air quality experiences a distinct seasonal cycle heavily influenced by meteorological conditions and agricultural practices. The warmer months (May-September) are generally marked by increased dust levels due to drier conditions and frequent wind events stirring up soil from surrounding agricultural lands. Harvesting activities during this period exacerbate particulate pollution. The monsoon season, though less pronounced than in other parts of South Asia, brings occasional periods of rainfall which can temporarily cleanse the air, but also increases humidity, potentially leading to the formation of ground-level ozone under sunny conditions. Autumn (October-November) often sees a slight improvement in air quality as harvesting winds subside, but the burning of crop residues continues, creating localized smoke plumes. Winter (December-February) presents the most challenging period. Cold, stable air masses frequently lead to temperature inversions, trapping pollutants near the ground and resulting in stagnant air conditions. Fog is also common, further reducing visibility and concentrating pollutants. Spring (March-April) brings a gradual improvement as temperatures rise and winds increase, dispersing pollutants. Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly, and individuals with respiratory conditions, should exercise caution during winter months, limiting outdoor activity on days with persistent fog or noticeable smoke. During harvest season, wearing masks and avoiding prolonged exposure to fields is advisable. Maintaining indoor air quality through ventilation and air purification can also mitigate the impacts of seasonal pollution.