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Mundamāla, nestled within the Rājshāhi Division of Bangladesh (coordinates 24.6081° N, 88.4728° E), occupies a geographically significant position within the northwest of the country. The city’s terrain is predominantly flat, characteristic of the Bengal Plain, with elevations rarely exceeding 30 meters above sea level. This low-lying topography, while facilitating agricultural productivity, presents challenges for air quality dispersion. Mundamāla is situated near the Padma River, a major distributary of the Ganges, which influences local humidity and temperature patterns. The surrounding landscape is dominated by fertile agricultural land, primarily dedicated to rice and jute cultivation, interspersed with smaller settlements and scattered groves. This proximity to intensive agricultural zones contributes to seasonal particulate matter pollution from crop residue burning, particularly during the post-harvest period. The urban–rural gradient around Mundamāla is relatively gradual, with agricultural activities extending close to the city limits. While Mundamāla itself is a small town, it serves as a regional market center, attracting traffic from surrounding villages. Further afield, the Chalan Beel, a large wetland ecosystem, influences regional weather patterns and can occasionally trap pollutants. The lack of significant natural barriers and the flat terrain mean that pollutants released within the region can readily spread, impacting air quality in Mundamāla. Industrial activity is limited within the immediate vicinity, but the broader Rājshāhi region hosts some brick kilns and small-scale industries, whose emissions can be transported to Mundamāla under certain meteorological conditions.

Mundamāla’s air quality experiences a distinct seasonal cycle heavily influenced by the monsoon climate. The monsoon season, typically spanning June to September, brings periods of heavy rainfall which naturally cleanse the atmosphere, leading to improved air quality. However, the preceding pre-monsoon months (March-May) often witness a significant deterioration. High temperatures and reduced rainfall create stable atmospheric conditions, frequently resulting in temperature inversions that trap pollutants near the ground. Agricultural burning of crop residue after the winter harvest is a major contributor during this period, releasing substantial amounts of particulate matter. The winter months (November-February) are characterized by cooler temperatures and frequent fog, which further exacerbates the problem by limiting vertical mixing and trapping pollutants. The dry season, encompassing much of the winter, sees a build-up of pollutants, with visibility often significantly reduced. During the monsoon, while rainfall provides a natural cleansing effect, heavy downpours can also lead to localized flooding and the release of pollutants from inundated areas. Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly, and individuals with respiratory conditions, should exercise caution during the pre-monsoon and winter months, limiting outdoor activity during peak pollution episodes. The transitional periods, particularly the shift from dry to wet and vice versa, are often marked by unpredictable air quality fluctuations. Maintaining indoor air quality through ventilation and air purification can be beneficial during periods of elevated pollution.