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Tupi Paulista, nestled within the São Paulo state of Brazil, occupies a geographically significant position in the Paraná River basin. Located at approximately -21.3808° latitude and -51.5708° longitude, the city’s terrain is characterized by gently undulating plains, typical of the southeastern Brazilian landscape. Its elevation, relatively low at around 450 meters above sea level, contributes to a warmer climate and influences local air circulation patterns. The surrounding landscape is a mosaic of agricultural land, primarily sugarcane plantations and citrus groves, interspersed with patches of native Cerrado vegetation, though this latter is increasingly fragmented. Tupi Paulista sits within a transitional zone between the more densely populated urban centers of São Paulo and the rural expanses of western São Paulo state, exhibiting a gradual urban–rural gradient. The Paraná River, while not directly adjacent, exerts a regional influence on weather patterns and humidity levels. The city’s proximity to the Presidente Prudente industrial belt, approximately 60 kilometers to the west, introduces a potential source of industrial emissions that can be transported by prevailing winds. The dominant land use is agricultural, meaning that seasonal burning practices associated with sugarcane harvesting and land clearing can significantly impact local air quality, particularly during the drier months. The relatively flat topography limits natural dispersion of pollutants, potentially leading to localized concentrations, especially during periods of stagnant air. The soil composition, largely composed of Terra Roxa, also influences the types of agricultural practices employed and, consequently, the potential for dust generation.

Tupi Paulista’s tropical climate dictates a distinct wet and dry season pattern, profoundly impacting air quality throughout the year. The dry season, typically spanning from April to September, is characterized by lower rainfall and higher temperatures, creating conditions conducive to increased particulate matter pollution. Agricultural burning, a common practice for land preparation and sugarcane harvesting, intensifies during this period, releasing significant amounts of smoke and particulate matter into the atmosphere. Temperature inversions, where cooler air is trapped beneath a layer of warmer air, are more frequent during the dry season, hindering vertical mixing and trapping pollutants near the ground. The months of August and September often experience the poorest air quality due to peak burning activity. Conversely, the wet season (October to March) brings increased rainfall and higher humidity, which naturally washes pollutants from the air and promotes better dispersion. Stronger winds associated with occasional thunderstorms also help to clear the atmosphere. While the wet season generally offers improved air quality, periods of dense fog, particularly in the early morning hours, can temporarily reduce visibility and trap pollutants close to the surface. Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly, and individuals with respiratory conditions, should exercise caution during the dry season, limiting outdoor activities during peak burning periods and avoiding areas with visible smoke. Maintaining indoor air quality through proper ventilation and air filtration is also recommended during these times. The increased humidity during the wet season can exacerbate mold allergies for some individuals.