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Bilbays, situated in the Ash Sharqīyah Governorate of Egypt (coordinates 30.4167° N, 31.5667° E), occupies a geographically significant position within the Nile River Valley. The city’s terrain is predominantly flat, characteristic of the fertile floodplain, with gentle undulations reflecting ancient river courses and alluvial deposits. Elevation rarely exceeds 30 meters above sea level, contributing to a relatively stable atmospheric layer, though also potentially exacerbating ground-level pollutant accumulation under certain conditions. Bilbays lies approximately 150 kilometers south of Cairo, placing it within the broader sphere of influence of Egypt’s major urban centers and industrial activity. The surrounding landscape is a mosaic of agricultural fields – primarily cultivating wheat, corn, and cotton – interspersed with smaller villages and traditional settlements. This agricultural zone contributes to seasonal particulate matter, particularly during harvest periods when residue burning is practiced. To the east, the landscape gradually transitions to drier, more arid terrain, typical of the Eastern Desert. The proximity to the Nile River, while a vital source of water and irrigation, can also influence local air quality through humidity and the potential for riverine transport of pollutants. The urban–rural gradient around Bilbays is relatively gradual, with agricultural land closely bordering the city limits, meaning agricultural practices directly impact the urban air quality. The lack of significant topographic barriers means that pollutants released within the city or from surrounding areas can disperse relatively easily, but also means that stagnant air conditions can lead to localized pollution build-up.

Bilbays experiences a hot, semi-arid climate, profoundly influencing its air quality throughout the year. The winter months (November to February) are generally the most favorable for outdoor activities, characterized by cooler temperatures and increased wind speeds. These winds, often originating from the north, help to disperse pollutants, leading to improved air quality compared to other seasons. However, occasional cold air masses can trigger temperature inversions, trapping pollutants near the ground, particularly during early morning hours. Spring (March to May) brings a gradual increase in temperature and dust storms originating from the Sahara Desert, significantly impacting air quality with elevated particulate matter. Agricultural activities intensify during this period, contributing to localized emissions. Summer (June to August) is the most challenging season, with intense heat, minimal rainfall, and stagnant air conditions. High temperatures exacerbate ozone formation, and the lack of wind leads to pollutant accumulation. The dry heat also increases the prevalence of dust and sand carried by sporadic winds. Autumn (September to October) sees a transition period with fluctuating temperatures and wind patterns. Harvest season contributes to increased particulate matter from agricultural residue burning. Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly, and individuals with respiratory conditions, should exercise caution during the summer months and be mindful of dust storm events in the spring. During periods of elevated dust, wearing masks and limiting outdoor exertion is advisable. Maintaining indoor air quality through proper ventilation and air filtration is also crucial, particularly during the warmer months.