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Ashaiman, a densely populated municipality within Ghana’s Greater Accra Region, occupies a strategically important position just east of Accra, the nation’s capital. Located at approximately 5.6995° N, -0.0348° E, its coordinates place it on relatively flat terrain, a characteristic of the coastal plains of southern Ghana. The city’s elevation is low, averaging around 30 meters above sea level, contributing to a tendency for pollutants to accumulate, particularly during periods of low wind. Ashaiman’s urban fabric is largely unplanned, resulting in a high-density mix of residential, commercial, and informal industrial activities. The surrounding landscape transitions rapidly from urban sprawl to agricultural land, with small-scale farming prevalent in the immediate outskirts, often involving burning practices that can impact local air quality. The Volta River, though not directly adjacent, influences regional weather patterns and humidity levels. The urban–rural gradient is sharp; Ashaiman represents a significant concentration of population and economic activity compared to the surrounding rural communities. Its proximity to Accra’s industrial belt, including areas with metal fabrication and auto repair shops, introduces a constant source of particulate matter and volatile organic compounds. The prevailing southwesterly winds, common during certain parts of the year, can either disperse pollutants or, under specific atmospheric conditions, trap them within the municipality. The lack of extensive green spaces within Ashaiman further exacerbates the urban heat island effect and limits natural air purification processes, compounding air quality challenges.

Ashaiman’s tropical climate dictates a distinct wet and dry season pattern, significantly influencing its air quality profile. The dry season, typically spanning November to March, often witnesses a noticeable increase in particulate matter concentrations. This is largely attributable to reduced rainfall, which limits the natural cleansing effect of precipitation, and increased dust intrusion from the Sahara Desert, a phenomenon known as the Saharan dust plume. Agricultural burning, a common practice for land preparation, also contributes substantially during this period. Temperature inversions, where a layer of warm air traps cooler air near the ground, are more frequent during the dry season, further hindering pollutant dispersion. The wet season, from April to October, generally brings improved air quality due to frequent rainfall and higher humidity, which helps to wash away pollutants and reduce dust levels. However, periods of intense rainfall can lead to flooding, which can stir up resuspended particulate matter. Fog, particularly during the transitional months, can also trap pollutants close to the ground. Outdoor activities are generally more favourable during the wet season, especially during the months of May, June, and September. Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly, and individuals with respiratory conditions, should exercise caution during the dry season, particularly when agricultural burning is prevalent, and consider limiting prolonged outdoor exposure. Maintaining indoor air quality through proper ventilation and air filtration can also provide some protection.