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Kodād, nestled in the undulating landscape of Andhra Pradesh, India, occupies a strategic position within the Krishna River delta. Its coordinates (16.9978° N, 79.9653° E) place it approximately 110 kilometers southwest of the state capital, Amaravati, and within a region characterized by fertile alluvial plains. The terrain is predominantly flat, gently sloping towards the Krishna River, which acts as a significant geographical feature influencing local climate and drainage patterns. Kodād’s urban character is that of a developing town, transitioning from an agricultural hub to a center with emerging industrial and commercial activities. The surrounding landscape is a mosaic of rice paddies, mango orchards, and smaller agricultural plots, typical of the delta region. This proximity to intensive agriculture contributes to seasonal particulate matter, particularly during harvest periods when biomass burning is common. To the east, the landscape gradually rises, transitioning into the Deccan Plateau, influencing prevailing wind patterns. The urban–rural gradient is relatively sharp, with the town bordered by agricultural land, creating a distinct contrast in land use and population density. The elevation is low, averaging around 25 meters above sea level, which can exacerbate air stagnation during periods of temperature inversion. While not directly adjacent to a major industrial belt, Kodād’s location along transportation routes connecting coastal Andhra Pradesh to the interior makes it susceptible to transboundary pollution and vehicular emissions, impacting overall air quality.

Kodād’s air quality follows a distinct seasonal pattern dictated by the region’s tropical climate and monsoon cycles. The dry season, typically spanning from March to May, presents the most challenging period. High temperatures and low humidity create stable atmospheric conditions, frequently leading to temperature inversions where cooler air is trapped beneath a layer of warmer air. This inversion prevents the vertical dispersion of pollutants, resulting in elevated concentrations of particulate matter and other gaseous pollutants. Dust storms, common during this period, further degrade air quality. The monsoon season, from June to September, brings relief as strong winds and rainfall effectively flush out pollutants. However, the onset of the monsoon can initially be accompanied by increased humidity and fog, which can temporarily trap pollutants near the ground. October and November mark a transitional period, with decreasing rainfall and gradually increasing temperatures, potentially leading to a resurgence of pollution. December and February represent a relatively cleaner period, characterized by cooler temperatures and more frequent wind dispersal. Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly, and individuals with respiratory conditions, should exercise caution during the dry season, limiting outdoor activities during peak pollution hours. Agricultural workers are particularly vulnerable during harvest periods due to exposure to smoke from biomass burning. Maintaining indoor air quality through ventilation and air purification can offer some protection during periods of poor air quality.