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Mudhol, a town in the Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh, India, sits at coordinates 18.9667°N, 77.9167°E. The terrain is largely flat, characteristic of the Krishna River delta, with an elevation hovering around 25 meters above sea level. This low-lying position contributes to limited natural dispersion of pollutants. The town is situated inland, approximately 30 kilometers from the Bay of Bengal, meaning direct marine influences on air quality are moderate, primarily manifesting as increased humidity. Mudhol’s surrounding landscape is dominated by agricultural land, primarily paddy fields, and increasingly, aquaculture ponds. While not a major industrial hub itself, Mudhol is within reach of industrial areas around Vijayawada and Guntur, contributing to regional background pollution. The urban-rural gradient is relatively sharp; the town itself is compact, with surrounding villages dedicated to agriculture. Dust from agricultural practices, particularly during harvesting and land preparation, is a significant local source of particulate matter. The Krishna River, while a vital resource, can also contribute to localised humidity and potential for stagnant air conditions, trapping pollutants. The town’s growth, coupled with increasing vehicle traffic, is exacerbating air quality challenges, demanding careful urban planning to mitigate future impacts.

Mudhol experiences a tropical climate, with distinct wet and dry seasons dictating air quality patterns. The hottest months, March to May, see temperatures soar, leading to increased ground-level ozone formation due to photochemical reactions. Dry conditions and strong winds can also stir up dust from agricultural lands, elevating particulate matter. This is generally a period of poorer air quality. The southwest monsoon arrives in June, bringing relief from the heat and washing away pollutants, resulting in significantly improved air quality throughout July and August. However, increased humidity can also foster mold growth, impacting respiratory health. Post-monsoon, from September to November, sees a gradual return to drier conditions, with moderate air quality. October and November can experience stagnant air, trapping pollutants. The coolest months, December to February, offer the most favourable air quality, with cooler temperatures reducing ozone formation and increased wind speeds aiding dispersion. However, temperature inversions, particularly in the early mornings, can trap pollutants near the ground. Sensitive groups – children, the elderly, and those with respiratory conditions – should limit outdoor activity during peak heat and stagnant periods, and consider using masks when dust levels are high.