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Hardiyā, nestled in the fertile plains of Bihar, India, occupies a geographically significant position within the Ganges River basin. Located at approximately 26.9443° N, 84.8542° E, the city’s terrain is predominantly flat, characteristic of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. Its elevation is relatively low, contributing to atmospheric stability and potential for pollutant accumulation. The surrounding landscape is dominated by agricultural fields – rice and wheat cultivation are prevalent – interspersed with small villages and scattered groves of trees. Hardiyā’s proximity to the Ghaghara River, a major tributary of the Ganges, influences local humidity and temperature patterns, though its direct impact on air quality is less pronounced than broader regional factors. The urban–rural gradient around Hardiyā is gradual; the city itself is a small, developing urban centre, with agricultural activities continuing right up to its periphery. This close integration of urban and rural land use means agricultural practices, including burning of crop residue after harvest, can significantly contribute to local air pollution episodes. Further afield, the broader industrial belt of Bihar, concentrated around cities like Patna and Muzaffarpur, introduces regional pollutants that can be transported to Hardiyā, particularly during periods of lower wind speed. The flat topography and limited natural barriers exacerbate the potential for pollutants to linger, especially during cooler months when temperature inversions are more frequent. The city’s location within a densely populated region also means it is susceptible to transboundary pollution from neighbouring areas.

Hardiyā’s air quality follows a distinct seasonal pattern dictated by the region’s monsoon climate. The monsoon season, typically from June to September, brings relief from accumulated pollutants due to frequent rainfall and strong winds that disperse contaminants. However, the monsoon also introduces humidity, which can exacerbate respiratory issues for sensitive individuals. The pre-monsoon period (March-May) is often the most challenging, characterized by hot, dry conditions and stagnant air. Temperature inversions, common during this time, trap pollutants near the ground, leading to increased concentrations. Agricultural burning of crop residue after the harvest season (late March/early April) significantly contributes to particulate matter pollution during this period. The post-monsoon season (October-November) sees a gradual improvement in air quality as temperatures cool, but the prevalence of fog, particularly in November, can trap pollutants and reduce visibility. The winter months (December-February) are generally the coldest, with frequent fog episodes and occasional temperature inversions, again leading to periods of poorer air quality. Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly, and individuals with pre-existing respiratory conditions, should limit outdoor activity during the pre-monsoon and winter months, especially on days with dense fog or stagnant air. Maintaining indoor air quality through ventilation and air purifiers can also be beneficial. Public health advisories are crucial during peak pollution periods, emphasizing the importance of mask usage and minimizing exposure to outdoor air.