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Karmauli, Bihar, situated at approximately 26.45°N, 86.10°E, occupies a geographically significant position within the fertile Gangetic plains of eastern India. The town’s terrain is predominantly flat, characteristic of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, with gentle undulations defining the surrounding landscape. Elevation is relatively low, contributing to atmospheric stability and potential for pollutant accumulation. Karmauli lies within a predominantly rural region, transitioning gradually towards more densely populated areas further west. The proximity to the Ganges River, though not immediately adjacent, influences regional weather patterns and can impact the dispersion of pollutants, particularly during periods of low wind. The surrounding area is dominated by agricultural land, primarily dedicated to rice and maize cultivation, with associated agricultural practices like stubble burning potentially contributing to localized air pollution episodes. While Karmauli itself is a small town, it’s part of a broader regional network connected to larger urban centers like Patna, which can influence air quality through long-range transport of pollutants. The urban–rural gradient is relatively smooth, with small villages and agricultural fields directly bordering the town. The lack of significant topographical barriers, combined with the flat terrain and agricultural activity, creates a setting where air pollutants can linger, especially during periods of stagnant air. The local climate, characterized by hot summers and a distinct monsoon season, further complicates the atmospheric dynamics affecting air quality.

Karmauli’s air quality experiences a distinct seasonal cycle dictated by the region’s monsoon climate. The pre-monsoon months (March-May) typically see the poorest air quality, driven by rising temperatures, decreasing rainfall, and increased agricultural activity. Stubble burning after the harvest season significantly elevates particulate matter concentrations, creating hazy conditions and reduced visibility. The monsoon season (June-September) brings relief as increased rainfall and stronger winds naturally cleanse the atmosphere, dispersing pollutants. However, heavy rainfall can also lead to waterlogging and the release of volatile organic compounds from decaying organic matter. The post-monsoon season (October-November) mirrors the pre-monsoon period, with a return to drier conditions and a resurgence of agricultural burning, leading to elevated pollution levels. Winter months (December-February) are often characterized by fog, which traps pollutants near the ground, exacerbating the problem. Temperature inversions, common during this period, further prevent vertical mixing, leading to a build-up of pollutants. Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly, and individuals with respiratory conditions, should exercise caution during the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons, limiting outdoor exertion and wearing appropriate masks. During the foggy winter months, minimizing outdoor activities is strongly advised. The monsoon season offers the most favourable conditions for outdoor activity, although vigilance regarding waterborne diseases remains important. Understanding these seasonal patterns is crucial for managing air quality risks and protecting public health.