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Keōl, nestled in the plains of Bihar, India, occupies a geographically significant position within the fertile Gangetic plains. Located at approximately 25.1218° N, 84.6324° E, the city’s terrain is predominantly flat, characteristic of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, with an elevation of roughly 128 meters above sea level. This low-lying topography, while conducive to agriculture, presents challenges regarding air quality dispersion. The surrounding landscape is dominated by agricultural fields – primarily rice and wheat cultivation – extending as far as the eye can see, contributing to seasonal biomass burning. Keōl’s proximity to the Ganges River, though providing a vital water source, can also influence local weather patterns and humidity levels, impacting pollutant behaviour. The city sits within a broader agricultural belt, and the urban–rural gradient is relatively gradual, with smaller villages and agricultural communities interspersed throughout the region. Industrial activity in the immediate vicinity is limited, but Keōl’s location within Bihar means it is connected to larger industrial hubs further west, potentially experiencing transported pollutants. The flat terrain and lack of significant topographical features hinder the natural vertical mixing of air, leading to pollutant accumulation, particularly during periods of stagnant atmospheric conditions. The prevailing wind patterns, often influenced by regional weather systems, play a crucial role in determining the dispersal of pollutants emitted from both local and distant sources. The dense population and reliance on traditional cooking methods in surrounding rural areas further exacerbate the air quality challenges.

Keōl’s air quality follows a distinct seasonal pattern dictated by the region’s monsoon climate. The pre-monsoon season (March-May) typically witnesses the worst air quality, characterized by high temperatures and stagnant air. The intense heat promotes the formation of temperature inversions, trapping pollutants close to the ground. Agricultural burning, a common practice to clear fields for the planting season, releases significant quantities of particulate matter and other harmful gases, dramatically worsening conditions. May marks the onset of the monsoon, bringing relief as strong winds and rainfall flush out accumulated pollutants. The monsoon season (June-September) generally offers the cleanest air, with frequent rain showers and improved ventilation. Post-monsoon (October-November) sees a gradual return to poorer air quality as agricultural burning resumes, though typically less intense than in the pre-monsoon period. Winter months (December-February) are often characterized by fog, which further restricts air movement and traps pollutants, creating a hazy and unhealthy atmosphere. Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly, and individuals with respiratory conditions, should exercise caution during the pre-monsoon and winter months, limiting outdoor activities and using air purifiers when possible. The monsoon season provides a window of opportunity for outdoor recreation, but even then, vigilance is advised, particularly during periods of reduced rainfall or increased agricultural activity. Maintaining awareness of local weather conditions and air quality forecasts is crucial for protecting public health.