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Malmal, Bihar, situated at approximately 26.48°N, 86.05°E, occupies a geographically significant position within the fertile Gangetic plains of eastern India. The city’s terrain is predominantly flat, characteristic of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, with an average elevation of around 58 meters above sea level. This low-lying topography, coupled with its location within a densely populated agricultural region, significantly influences its air quality. Malmal is surrounded by expansive farmlands, primarily dedicated to rice and maize cultivation, contributing to seasonal biomass burning and agricultural dust. To the north, the landscape gradually rises towards the foothills of the Himalayas, though the distance is considerable, impacting regional wind patterns. The proximity to the Ganges River, though not immediately adjacent, influences local humidity and temperature, which in turn affects pollutant dispersion. The urban–rural gradient around Malmal is relatively sharp; the city transitions quickly into agricultural land, limiting the buffering effect of extensive green spaces. Industrial activity in the broader Bihar region, particularly in areas further west, can contribute to transboundary pollution events. The flat terrain and limited elevation changes hinder vertical mixing of pollutants, often leading to ground-level accumulation, especially during periods of stagnant air. The city’s compact urban form, typical of many smaller Indian towns, concentrates emissions from vehicular traffic and domestic sources, further exacerbating local air quality challenges. The surrounding landscape, dominated by agriculture, presents a unique set of air quality considerations distinct from larger, more industrialized urban centers.

Malmal’s air quality follows a distinct seasonal pattern dictated by the region’s monsoon climate. The pre-monsoon season (March-May) typically witnesses the worst air quality, characterized by high levels of particulate matter. This is driven by a combination of factors: agricultural residue burning following the winter harvest, increasing temperatures leading to higher ozone formation, and stagnant air conditions due to the absence of strong winds. Temperature inversions are common during this period, trapping pollutants near the ground. The monsoon season (June-September) brings a welcome respite, with heavy rainfall effectively washing away pollutants and strong winds dispersing any remaining emissions. Humidity increases significantly, which can affect respiratory comfort. Post-monsoon (October-November) sees a gradual return to poorer air quality as agricultural burning resumes, though generally less intense than in the pre-monsoon period. Winter (December-February) is characterized by cooler temperatures and frequent fog, which further restricts pollutant dispersion and can lead to elevated levels of particulate matter. The fog, combined with domestic heating using biomass fuels, contributes to a localized haze. Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly, and individuals with respiratory conditions, should exercise caution during the pre-monsoon and winter months, limiting outdoor activity during peak pollution periods. Maintaining indoor air quality through ventilation and air purifiers is also advisable. The monsoon months offer the most favorable conditions for outdoor activities, though high humidity may still be a factor for some individuals. Awareness campaigns promoting cleaner agricultural practices and reducing reliance on biomass fuels are crucial for improving air quality throughout the year.