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Raiyam, nestled in the state of Bihar, India, occupies a geographically significant position within the fertile Gangetic plains. Located at approximately 26.2702° N, 86.2071° E, the town’s coordinates place it within a relatively flat terrain, characteristic of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. Raiyam’s elevation is modest, contributing to a tendency for pollutants to accumulate, particularly during periods of atmospheric stability. The surrounding landscape is predominantly agricultural, with extensive fields of rice and wheat dominating the rural areas. This agricultural activity, while vital to the regional economy, contributes to seasonal particulate matter pollution through practices like crop residue burning, especially after the harvest season. Raiyam’s proximity to the Ganges River, though providing a crucial water source, can also influence local weather patterns and, indirectly, air quality. The river’s moisture content can lead to increased humidity and fog formation, trapping pollutants close to the ground. The urban–rural gradient around Raiyam is gradual, with small villages and agricultural lands transitioning seamlessly into the town’s built environment. There are no major industrial belts immediately adjacent to Raiyam, however, larger industrial areas in Bihar’s more developed regions can contribute to regional pollution transport. The town’s relatively small size (population 17,204) means that local emissions from vehicles and residential sources are the primary drivers of air quality concerns, exacerbated by the regional meteorological conditions and agricultural practices.

Raiyam’s air quality follows a distinct seasonal pattern dictated by the region’s monsoon climate. The monsoon season, typically spanning from June to September, brings relief from accumulated pollutants as strong winds and frequent rainfall effectively cleanse the atmosphere. Humidity levels are high during this period, which can slightly exacerbate respiratory issues for some individuals. The pre-monsoon months (March-May) are often the most challenging, characterized by rising temperatures, decreasing rainfall, and a prevalence of stagnant air. This combination frequently leads to a build-up of pollutants, particularly particulate matter from agricultural burning and local sources. Temperature inversions, common during these months, trap pollutants near the ground, worsening air quality. The post-monsoon season (October-November) sees a gradual improvement as rainfall decreases, but agricultural burning intensifies, creating a period of elevated pollution. Winter months (December-February) are typically foggy, further reducing visibility and trapping pollutants. The dense fog, combined with cooler temperatures and reduced wind speeds, creates conditions conducive to poor air quality. Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly, and individuals with pre-existing respiratory conditions, should exercise caution during the pre-monsoon and winter months, limiting outdoor activity during peak pollution periods. During the monsoon, while generally cleaner, high humidity can still pose challenges for those with respiratory sensitivities. Maintaining indoor air quality through ventilation and air purification can be beneficial throughout the year.