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Sonupur, Bihar, situated at approximately 25.8000° N, 86.0253° E, occupies a geographically significant position within the fertile Gangetic plains of India. The city’s terrain is predominantly flat, characteristic of the Indo-Gangetic alluvial plain, resulting in minimal elevation changes. This flatness, while conducive to agriculture, unfortunately exacerbates air pollution issues as pollutants tend to accumulate rather than disperse effectively. Sonupur lies close to the Gandak River, a major tributary of the Ganges, which influences local humidity and temperature patterns. The surrounding landscape is overwhelmingly rural, dominated by agricultural fields – primarily rice and maize cultivation – interspersed with small villages. This proximity to intensive agricultural practices contributes to seasonal air quality challenges, particularly during harvest periods when biomass burning is common. The urban–rural gradient around Sonupur is gradual, with agricultural land steadily transitioning to residential areas within the city limits. Further afield, the region is part of a broader agricultural belt stretching across northern India, impacting regional air quality patterns. The lack of significant topographical features hinders natural ventilation, and the flat terrain combined with the prevalence of brick kilns and agricultural activities creates conditions where pollutants can linger. The city’s location within a densely populated state like Bihar, coupled with increasing vehicular traffic, further compounds these challenges, making air quality a persistent concern.

Sonupur’s air quality follows a distinct seasonal pattern dictated by the region’s monsoon climate. The dry season, typically spanning from October to May, presents the most significant air quality challenges. During these months, lower humidity and reduced rainfall contribute to the accumulation of particulate matter. Temperature inversions, common during the colder months (December-February), trap pollutants near the ground, leading to periods of stagnant air and elevated concentrations. Agricultural burning, prevalent during the post-harvest season (October-November), releases substantial amounts of smoke and particulate matter, significantly degrading air quality. The monsoon season (June-September) brings relief, with frequent rainfall washing away pollutants and strong winds dispersing them. However, even during the monsoon, periods of prolonged rainfall can lead to stagnant conditions and localized flooding, which can temporarily worsen air quality due to the release of mould spores and other bioaerosols. The transitional periods (March-May and September-October) are characterized by variable conditions, with dust storms and agricultural activities contributing to fluctuating pollution levels. Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly, and individuals with respiratory conditions, should exercise caution during the dry season, particularly during periods of agricultural burning and temperature inversions. Limiting outdoor exertion and wearing masks are advisable during these times. The monsoon months generally offer a respite, but vigilance is still necessary during periods of heavy rainfall and flooding.