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Tola Khadda, nestled in the state of Bihar, India, occupies a geographically significant position within the fertile Gangetic plains. Located at approximately 26.74° N latitude and 84.50° E longitude, the town’s coordinates place it within a relatively flat terrain, characteristic of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The elevation is low, typically below 50 meters above sea level, contributing to a tendency for pollutants to accumulate, particularly during periods of atmospheric stability. The surrounding landscape is predominantly agricultural, with extensive rice paddies and other crops dominating the rural areas. This agricultural activity, while vital for the regional economy, can contribute to air pollution through the burning of crop residue after harvest, a common practice in Bihar. Tola Khadda’s proximity to the Ganges River, though providing a crucial water source, also influences local weather patterns and can impact air quality through humidity and temperature fluctuations. The urban–rural gradient around Tola Khadda is gradual, with small villages and agricultural fields transitioning seamlessly into the town’s built environment. While not directly adjacent to major industrial belts, the town’s location within Bihar means it is susceptible to pollutants transported from larger industrial centers further afield. The flat topography and prevailing wind patterns often facilitate the advection of pollutants from these distant sources, compounding local emissions. The lack of significant natural barriers further exacerbates this issue, allowing pollutants to spread widely across the region.

Tola Khadda experiences a distinct seasonal cycle that profoundly impacts its air quality. The dry season, typically spanning from October to May, is characterized by lower rainfall and increased temperature inversions, particularly during the winter months (December-February). These inversions trap pollutants near the ground, leading to periods of stagnant air and elevated particulate matter. The burning of crop residue after the harvest season (October-November) significantly contributes to this pollution, creating a dense haze that can persist for weeks. The monsoon season (June-September) brings relief, with heavy rainfall washing away pollutants and strong winds dispersing them. However, the monsoon also introduces its own challenges, including increased humidity and the potential for fungal spores to exacerbate respiratory issues. The pre-monsoon period (March-May) often sees a rise in temperatures and dust levels, further degrading air quality. During the summer months, hot, dry winds can carry dust and pollutants from surrounding agricultural areas. Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly, and individuals with pre-existing respiratory conditions, should exercise caution during the dry season, particularly during periods of stagnant air. Outdoor activities are best avoided during the early morning and late evening when temperatures are lower and inversions are more likely to occur. The monsoon months generally offer the most favourable conditions for outdoor activity, although vigilance regarding humidity-related health concerns is still advised. The transitional periods, pre and post-monsoon, require careful monitoring of local air quality conditions.