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Punnayūr, nestled in the Malabar region of Kerala, India, occupies a geographically significant position within a landscape sculpted by the Western Ghats. Located at approximately 10.65°N latitude and 76.00°E longitude, the town sits at a modest elevation, contributing to a relatively humid and warm climate. The surrounding terrain is characterized by undulating hills and valleys, typical of Kerala’s coastal plains, with agricultural land dominating the immediate periphery. Punnayūr’s proximity to the Bharathapuzha River (also known as the Pampa River) plays a crucial role in the local microclimate, moderating temperatures and influencing humidity levels. The river acts as a natural corridor, potentially dispersing pollutants but also contributing to localized moisture and fog formation under certain conditions. The urban–rural gradient around Punnayūr is gradual, with small villages and agricultural fields seamlessly blending into the town’s limits. While Punnayūr itself is a relatively small urban center, it serves as a trading hub for the surrounding agricultural region, primarily focused on rice cultivation, spices, and coconut farming. There are no major industrial belts immediately adjacent to Punnayūr, however, larger industrial zones exist further inland, and transportation routes connecting them pass through the area, potentially introducing vehicular emissions. The prevailing winds, influenced by the monsoon patterns and the topography of the Western Ghats, significantly impact the dispersion of any pollutants generated within or transported into the town. The dense vegetation surrounding Punnayūr also acts as a natural filter, absorbing some pollutants, but can also trap them under stagnant atmospheric conditions.

Punnayūr’s tropical climate dictates a distinct wet and dry season pattern, profoundly influencing its air quality. The southwest monsoon, typically arriving in June and lasting until September, brings torrential rainfall, effectively cleansing the atmosphere and significantly reducing particulate matter and gaseous pollutants. This period generally offers the best air quality for outdoor activities. Following the monsoon, the post-monsoon season (October-November) sees a gradual decrease in rainfall, with increased humidity and calmer winds. This can lead to a slight build-up of pollutants, particularly from agricultural activities like crop burning, although this is less prevalent in Kerala compared to other Indian states. The dry season (December-May) presents a more complex scenario. While temperatures rise, wind speeds often decrease, creating conditions conducive to temperature inversions, especially during the early morning hours. These inversions trap pollutants near the ground, potentially exacerbating respiratory issues. Fog, common during this period, further restricts dispersion. Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly, and individuals with pre-existing respiratory conditions, should exercise caution during these months, particularly avoiding strenuous outdoor activity during the early morning. Agricultural practices, including fertilizer application, can also contribute to localized emissions during this period. The transition months, March and April, often experience a combination of rising temperatures and decreasing rainfall, which can lead to a noticeable decline in air quality before the monsoon arrives to flush the system clean. Overall, the monsoon season provides a natural respite, while the dry season demands increased vigilance regarding air quality.