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Budha Thēh, nestled in the fertile plains of Punjab, India, occupies a geographically significant position within the Indo-Gangetic Plain. Located at approximately 31.52°N, 75.30°E, the city’s terrain is predominantly flat, characteristic of the alluvial landscape deposited by the Indus River system over millennia. Its elevation is relatively low, around 238 meters (781 feet) above sea level, contributing to atmospheric stability and potential for pollutant accumulation. The surrounding landscape is dominated by intensive agricultural land, a patchwork of wheat, rice, and maize fields, interspersed with smaller villages and rural settlements. This proximity to agricultural zones is a crucial factor influencing Budha Thēh’s air quality, with seasonal burning of crop residue (stubble burning) being a major contributor to particulate matter pollution. The urban–rural gradient is gradual, with the city transitioning seamlessly into the agricultural hinterland. While Budha Thēh lacks direct access to major rivers or large bodies of water, the region experiences groundwater resources, impacting irrigation practices and potentially contributing to dust generation during drier periods. The city’s regional position, within a densely populated and industrialized belt of Punjab, also exposes it to transboundary pollution originating from nearby industrial areas and urban centers. The flat topography and limited natural ventilation exacerbate the challenges in dispersing pollutants, making Budha Thēh particularly vulnerable to poor air quality episodes.

Budha Thēh’s air quality follows a distinct seasonal pattern dictated by meteorological conditions and agricultural practices. The post-monsoon season (October-November) is notoriously the most challenging, coinciding with the widespread practice of stubble burning following the rice harvest. This releases enormous quantities of particulate matter and other pollutants into the atmosphere, often leading to severely degraded air quality. The prevailing calm winds and frequent temperature inversions during this period trap pollutants near the ground, intensifying their impact. Winter (December-February) continues to present challenges, with cold temperatures and fog further reducing visibility and hindering pollutant dispersion. The fog, a common occurrence, traps pollutants and increases the concentration of respirable particulate matter. Spring (March-May) brings a gradual improvement as temperatures rise and winds increase, aiding in the dispersal of pollutants. However, dust storms originating from the Thar Desert can occasionally impact air quality during this period. The monsoon season (June-September) typically offers the most relief, with rainfall washing away pollutants and strong winds dispersing them. However, even during the monsoon, localized pollution from agricultural activities and vehicular emissions can persist. Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly, and individuals with respiratory conditions, should exercise caution during the post-monsoon and winter months, limiting outdoor exposure and using appropriate respiratory protection. Outdoor activities are generally more favourable during the monsoon and spring seasons, although vigilance regarding dust events remains important.