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Kulpahār, nestled in the heart of Uttar Pradesh, India, occupies a geographically significant position within the Indo-Gangetic Plain. Located at approximately 25.3190° N, 79.6410° E, the city’s terrain is predominantly flat, characteristic of the alluvial plains formed by the Ganges River and its tributaries. The surrounding landscape is a mosaic of agricultural fields – primarily wheat and rice cultivation – interspersed with small villages and scattered groves of trees. This intensive agricultural activity, while vital to the regional economy, contributes to seasonal particulate matter pollution through crop residue burning. Kulpahār’s proximity to the Ganges River, though providing a crucial water source, also influences local meteorology, impacting humidity levels and potentially trapping pollutants under certain atmospheric conditions. The urban–rural gradient around Kulpahār is relatively gradual, with agricultural land extending outwards for several kilometers. The city itself exhibits a compact urban character, with a mix of traditional residential areas and emerging commercial zones. The elevation is low, around 118 meters above sea level, which, combined with the flat topography, limits natural air circulation and can exacerbate pollution episodes. While not directly adjacent to major industrial belts, Kulpahār’s location within Uttar Pradesh places it within reach of industrial activity in larger cities like Kanpur and Lucknow, which can contribute to transboundary pollution events. The lack of significant natural barriers further compounds the challenge of dispersing pollutants.

Kulpahār’s air quality follows a distinct seasonal pattern dictated by regional meteorology and agricultural practices. The dry winter months (November to February) consistently present the most challenging conditions. Cold temperatures frequently lead to temperature inversions, trapping pollutants close to the ground and significantly reducing vertical mixing. Agricultural burning of crop residue after the harvest season (October-November) dramatically increases particulate matter concentrations, creating a dense haze that blankets the region. Fog, common during these months, further restricts visibility and exacerbates the impact of pollutants. Spring (March-April) brings a slight improvement as temperatures rise and winds increase, gradually dispersing some of the accumulated pollutants. However, dust storms originating from the Thar Desert can still impact air quality during this period. The monsoon season (June to September) offers a period of relative respite, with rainfall washing away pollutants and strong winds dispersing them. Humidity increases significantly, which can affect respiratory comfort. The post-monsoon period (October) sees a gradual return to drier conditions, with a build-up of pollutants preceding the winter peak. Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly, and individuals with respiratory conditions, should exercise caution during the winter months, limiting outdoor activity and using air purifiers when possible. During the peak pollution periods, wearing N95 masks can offer some protection. The transition months of spring and autumn require vigilance due to dust and agricultural burning respectively.