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Sāndi, a small city nestled within the expansive Uttar Pradesh state of India, occupies a relatively flat terrain at approximately 27.3000°N latitude and 79.9500°E longitude. Its location in the Indo-Gangetic Plain significantly influences its air quality. The surrounding landscape is predominantly agricultural, characterized by intensive farming practices common to the region, including wheat, rice, and sugarcane cultivation. This agricultural activity contributes to seasonal biomass burning, a major source of particulate matter. Sāndi is not directly adjacent to any major bodies of water, though the Ganges River lies within a reasonable distance, influencing regional humidity patterns. The city’s modest size suggests a less concentrated industrial base compared to larger Uttar Pradesh cities, but regional industrial activity, particularly around larger urban centres like Bareilly and Moradabad, can contribute to transboundary pollution. The urban-rural gradient is relatively sharp, with agricultural land immediately surrounding the city limits. This proximity means pollutants from agricultural sources are quickly dispersed within the city. The flat topography limits natural dispersion of pollutants, exacerbating air quality issues, especially during periods of calm weather. Dust from agricultural fields and unpaved roads further compounds the problem, creating a challenging environment for maintaining clean air.

Sāndi experiences a distinct seasonal air quality pattern dictated by the monsoon and post-monsoon periods. Summer (April-June) brings hot, dry winds and increased dust levels, leading to elevated particulate matter concentrations. Temperatures soar, potentially creating shallow temperature inversions that trap pollutants near the ground. October-November, following the monsoon’s retreat, is often the most polluted period. Stubble burning from the harvested rice crop is rampant, releasing massive amounts of smoke and particulate matter. Calm winds and cooler temperatures exacerbate the situation, creating dense smog. The monsoon season (July-September) offers a temporary respite, as rainfall washes away pollutants and increased humidity suppresses dust. However, even during the monsoon, localised pollution from traffic and smaller industries persists. Winter (December-February) sees cool temperatures and frequent fog, trapping pollutants and reducing visibility. Sensitive groups – children, the elderly, and those with respiratory conditions – should limit outdoor activity during the post-monsoon and winter months. Avoiding peak hours for commuting and using respiratory masks can offer some protection. The monsoon months generally present the most favourable conditions for outdoor activity, though vigilance regarding localised sources is still advised.