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Probolinggo, a coastal city in East Java, Indonesia, occupies a strategic position between the Tengger Mountains and the Madura Strait. Situated at approximately -7.7500 latitude and 113.2167 longitude, the city’s relatively low elevation (around 87 meters above sea level) contributes to its warm, humid climate and influences air quality. The surrounding landscape is a mix of fertile agricultural land – primarily sugarcane and rice paddies – and increasingly, industrial development linked to the port. Probolinggo serves as a crucial transport hub, connecting East Java to the island of Madura via the Suramadu Bridge, and is a gateway for tourism to Mount Bromo. This connectivity, however, also means increased traffic and associated emissions. The urban-rural gradient is pronounced; the city centre experiences higher population density and industrial activity, while the periphery transitions into agricultural zones. The proximity to the sea introduces sea breezes which can offer some dispersion of pollutants, but also contribute to humidity and potential for salt-related corrosion. The prevailing winds, influenced by the monsoon seasons, play a significant role in pollutant transport. Industrial activity concentrated around the port and along major transport corridors directly impacts local air quality, creating hotspots of pollution.

Probolinggo experiences a distinct wet and dry season, rather than traditional four seasons. Air quality generally deteriorates during the dry season (May to September) due to increased dust from agricultural activities, reduced rainfall for pollutant washout, and higher temperatures promoting ground-level ozone formation. August and September are typically the months with the poorest air quality. The dry season also sees increased burning of agricultural waste, further exacerbating particulate matter pollution. Conversely, the wet season (October to April) brings relief, with frequent rainfall effectively cleansing the air. November to February, during the peak of the monsoon, usually offers the best air quality. However, heavy rainfall can also lead to localised flooding, potentially releasing pollutants from stagnant water. Temperature inversions, common during the transition periods between seasons, can trap pollutants near the ground, worsening air quality. Sensitive groups – children, the elderly, and those with respiratory conditions – should limit outdoor activity during the dry season, particularly in areas near industrial zones and major roads. Monitoring wind patterns is crucial, as winds from the west can carry pollutants from surrounding areas.