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Kotamobagu, nestled in the heart of North Sulawesi, Indonesia, occupies a geographically significant position within a dynamic landscape. Located at approximately 0.7333° N, 124.3167° E, the city sits at a modest elevation, contributing to a relatively mild climate. The surrounding terrain is characterized by a blend of rolling hills and valleys, transitioning into the mountainous interior of Sulawesi. This topography influences local wind patterns and can trap pollutants under certain meteorological conditions. Kotamobagu is strategically positioned near Lake Danau Mohudu, a vital freshwater resource and a significant feature of the regional ecosystem. The lake moderates local temperatures and contributes to humidity levels, impacting atmospheric stability. The urban fabric of Kotamobagu exhibits a clear urban–rural gradient, with denser residential and commercial areas concentrated in the city center, gradually giving way to agricultural lands and smaller villages in the periphery. The dominant agricultural activity in the surrounding areas includes cocoa, coffee, and rice cultivation, which, while economically important, can contribute to localized air pollution through burning practices during land clearing and harvesting. While not directly adjacent to major industrial belts, Kotamobagu’s proximity to Gorontalo, a larger regional hub, means it can be affected by industrial emissions transported by prevailing winds. The city’s location within a tropical region means it experiences high rainfall, which generally helps to cleanse the atmosphere, but can also exacerbate issues related to flooding and associated particulate matter resuspension.

Kotamobagu’s tropical climate dictates a distinct wet and dry season, profoundly influencing its air quality profile. The dry season, typically spanning from June to September, often sees a slight increase in particulate matter concentrations. This is largely attributable to reduced rainfall, which limits the natural cleansing effect of precipitation, and increased agricultural burning practices as farmers prepare fields for the next planting cycle. While wind patterns are generally consistent throughout the year, the drier conditions can lead to periods of lower wind speeds, allowing pollutants to accumulate locally. Temperature inversions, though not as frequent as in colder climates, can occasionally occur during the dry season, trapping pollutants closer to the ground, particularly in the valleys surrounding the city. The wet season, from October to May, brings frequent rainfall and higher humidity, significantly improving air quality by washing away particulate matter and diluting gaseous pollutants. Fog, a less common occurrence, can sometimes form during the wet season, particularly in the mornings, temporarily reducing visibility and trapping pollutants. During the peak of the wet season (December-February), outdoor activities are generally favoured due to the cleaner air. Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly, and individuals with respiratory conditions, should exercise caution during the dry season, particularly during periods of agricultural burning, and be mindful of potential fog events during the wet season. Maintaining awareness of local weather patterns and minimizing exposure to potential sources of pollution are key strategies for protecting respiratory health.