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Ḩalabjah, nestled within the As Sulaymānīyah Governorate of Iraq, occupies a geographically complex and historically sensitive position. Located at coordinates 35.1833°N, 45.9833°E, the city sits in a valley within the Zagros Mountains, at an elevation of approximately 800 meters. This mountainous terrain significantly influences local air quality, creating natural barriers to wind flow and fostering temperature inversions, particularly during colder months. The surrounding landscape is characterised by steep slopes, narrow valleys, and limited flat land, restricting urban sprawl and concentrating pollution sources. The city is not directly adjacent to a major body of water, though smaller rivers and streams originating in the mountains traverse the region. Historically, Ḩalabjah and its surrounding areas have been largely agricultural, with farming concentrated on the valley floors. However, the legacy of conflict, including the devastating chemical attack of 1988, has left lasting environmental scars and altered land use patterns. The urban-rural gradient is relatively sharp, transitioning quickly from the city centre to agricultural lands and then to more rugged mountainous terrain. This topography, combined with the region’s history, creates unique challenges for air quality management, as pollutants can become trapped within the valley and dispersed slowly.

Air quality in Ḩalabjah experiences distinct seasonal variations. Spring (March-May) often sees a temporary improvement as increased rainfall washes away accumulated pollutants, though dust storms originating from the surrounding arid regions can still impact air quality. Summer (June-August) is typically drier, with higher temperatures potentially exacerbating ground-level ozone formation, particularly if there are vehicle emissions. However, prevailing winds can offer some relief. Autumn (September-November) is often considered the most pleasant period for air quality, with cooler temperatures and moderate rainfall. However, the burning of agricultural residue after harvest can contribute to localised spikes in particulate matter. Winter (December-February) presents the most challenging conditions. Temperature inversions are common, trapping pollutants close to the ground. Reduced sunlight hours limit the natural dispersion of pollutants, and increased reliance on indoor heating, often utilising solid fuels, adds to the problem. Sensitive groups – children, the elderly, and those with respiratory conditions – should limit outdoor activity during winter months and periods of stagnant air. Dust storms are also possible throughout the year, requiring mask use. Monitoring wind patterns and avoiding outdoor exertion during peak pollution periods is crucial for protecting public health.