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Boundiali, nestled within the Savanes Region of northern Ivory Coast (coordinates 9.5167° N, -6.4833° E), occupies a geographically significant position at the edge of the Sahelian transition zone. The city’s terrain is predominantly characterized by gently undulating plains, a consequence of its location within the Volta River basin. This low-lying landscape, averaging around 250 meters above sea level, contributes to a relatively stable atmospheric layer, which can, under certain conditions, exacerbate air quality issues. Boundiali is surrounded by a mosaic of agricultural lands – primarily cotton and sorghum farms – interspersed with sparse savanna woodlands. This agricultural activity, particularly during harvesting seasons, introduces particulate matter into the air. The city’s urban footprint is gradually expanding, transitioning from a rural agricultural hub to a modest commercial center, creating an urban–rural gradient where dust from construction and vehicle emissions increasingly mingle with agricultural pollutants. While not directly adjacent to a major river, Boundiali benefits from seasonal watercourses and wetlands, which can influence local humidity and, consequently, the dispersion of airborne pollutants. The regional position, far from major industrial belts, means that Boundiali’s air quality is primarily influenced by local sources, including vehicular traffic, agricultural practices, and residential wood-burning for cooking and heating, especially during the cooler dry season. The surrounding landscape, largely open and flat, offers limited topographical barriers to pollutant dispersal, making the city susceptible to localized air quality degradation.

Boundiali’s tropical savanna climate dictates a distinct wet and dry season cycle, profoundly impacting air quality. The dry season, typically spanning from November to May, presents the most significant air quality challenges. Reduced rainfall leads to drier soils, intensifying dust generation from agricultural fields and unpaved roads. Wind patterns during this period, often characterized by the Harmattan winds blowing from the Sahara, transport fine particulate matter, further degrading air quality. Temperature inversions, common during the cooler nights of the dry season, trap pollutants near the ground, leading to increased concentrations. Conversely, the wet season (June to October) brings relief through frequent rainfall, which naturally washes pollutants from the atmosphere. Increased humidity also helps to suppress dust generation. However, periods of intense rainfall can lead to flooding, which can release mold spores and other allergens into the air, impacting respiratory health. The months of January and February, coinciding with peak Harmattan activity and cooler temperatures, are generally the most unfavorable for outdoor activities, particularly for children, the elderly, and individuals with pre-existing respiratory conditions. During the wet season, while overall air quality improves, periods of heavy fog can temporarily reduce visibility and trap pollutants. It’s advisable for sensitive groups to limit prolonged outdoor exposure during these times and to ensure adequate ventilation in indoor spaces, especially if cooking with wood or charcoal.