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Etrotroka, nestled within the Fianarantsoa region of Madagascar, presents a unique geographic context influencing its air quality. Situated at approximately -22.8885 latitude and 47.5880 longitude, the city occupies a highland plateau environment. The terrain is characterised by rolling hills and valleys, typical of the central highlands of Madagascar, with an elevation contributing to cooler temperatures than coastal regions. This altitude, while moderating temperatures, can also exacerbate pollution through temperature inversions. Etrotroka isn’t directly adjacent to a major body of water, though smaller rivers and streams dissect the landscape, providing limited natural dispersion of pollutants. The surrounding landscape is predominantly agricultural, with rice paddies and small-scale farming dominating the rural-urban gradient. While not a heavily industrialised centre, local brick-making and artisanal activities contribute to particulate matter emissions. The urban character is relatively compact, with a clear transition from denser residential areas towards more dispersed agricultural land. This proximity to agricultural practices, including slash-and-burn techniques during land preparation, introduces seasonal smoke and biomass burning particles into the air. The city’s position within a valley can trap pollutants, particularly during calm weather conditions, impacting local air quality.

Etrotroka experiences a distinct wet and dry season, profoundly impacting air quality. The dry season, roughly from April to October, is characterised by lower rainfall and increased dust from unpaved roads and agricultural lands. This period sees a peak in particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5) as drier conditions facilitate the suspension of these particles. August and September are typically the dustiest months, making outdoor activity less favourable for those with respiratory sensitivities. The cooler temperatures during this season can also lead to temperature inversions, trapping pollutants near ground level. Conversely, the wet season, from November to March, brings relief from dust, as rainfall effectively washes particles from the atmosphere. However, increased humidity can promote mould growth, potentially triggering allergic reactions. The months of December and January, while offering cleaner air from dust, can experience localised smoke from agricultural burning as farmers prepare fields for the next planting season. During the transition periods – April and November – air quality is variable, requiring increased vigilance. Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly, and those with pre-existing respiratory conditions, should limit strenuous outdoor activity during the dry season and monitor local conditions during transition periods.