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Anjahambe, nestled within the Toamasina Province of Madagascar, occupies a geographically significant position along the eastern coast. Located at approximately -17.3798 latitude and 49.1433 longitude, the city’s immediate surroundings are characterized by a blend of coastal plains and gently undulating terrain, rising gradually inland. The proximity to the Indian Ocean exerts a profound influence on the local climate and, consequently, air quality. To the east lies the expansive ocean, providing a potential pathway for marine aerosols and influencing prevailing wind patterns. Westward, the landscape transitions into a mosaic of agricultural lands, primarily focused on clove, vanilla, and rice cultivation – these activities contribute to localized particulate matter, particularly during harvesting seasons. The urban–rural gradient around Anjahambe is relatively sharp; the city itself is small, with a population of just over 12,000, quickly giving way to rural agricultural communities. Elevation is minimal, rarely exceeding 30 meters above sea level, which can exacerbate the trapping of pollutants during periods of stable atmospheric conditions. The Toamasina region is known for its industrial activity, including port operations and processing plants, though Anjahambe itself is not a major industrial hub. However, emissions from Toamasina can be transported via prevailing winds, impacting air quality. The surrounding landscape is dominated by coastal forests and mangrove ecosystems, which, while offering some natural air filtration, are vulnerable to deforestation and degradation, further impacting local air quality. The city’s coastal location makes it susceptible to sea breezes and coastal fog, which can influence pollutant dispersion.

Anjahambe’s tropical climate dictates a distinct wet and dry season pattern, significantly influencing its air quality profile. The wet season, typically spanning from November to April, brings frequent rainfall and high humidity. While the rain naturally helps to cleanse the atmosphere by scavenging particulate matter, the increased humidity can also contribute to the formation of secondary pollutants like ozone, particularly during periods of intense sunlight following rainfall. The dry season, from May to October, is characterized by lower rainfall and increased sunshine hours. This often leads to a build-up of pollutants, especially during periods of stagnant air. Temperature inversions, where a layer of warm air sits above cooler air near the ground, are more common during the dry season, trapping pollutants close to the surface. The prevailing easterly trade winds, typical of the region, can transport pollutants from Toamasina and other coastal industrial areas, impacting Anjahambe’s air quality. Fog, common during the transition months (October and November), can also trap pollutants, leading to localized episodes of poor air quality. Outdoor activities are generally more favourable during the wet season, particularly during and immediately after rainfall. However, sensitive groups, such as children, the elderly, and individuals with respiratory conditions, should exercise caution during the dry season, especially during periods of stagnant air or fog. Agricultural burning, a common practice during land preparation, can also significantly degrade air quality, particularly in the months leading up to the wet season. Careful monitoring of local weather conditions and awareness of potential pollution sources are crucial for protecting public health.