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Mandialaza, nestled within the Toamasina Province of Madagascar, occupies a geographically significant position along the eastern coast. Located at approximately -18.6056° latitude and 48.0310° longitude, the city’s immediate surroundings are characterized by a blend of coastal plains and gently undulating terrain. The proximity to the Indian Ocean exerts a profound influence on the local climate and, consequently, air quality. Toamasina, Madagascar’s largest port city, lies a relatively short distance to the north, acting as a major industrial and commercial hub. This proximity means Mandialaza experiences some spillover effects from port-related activities, including potential emissions from shipping and associated industries. The surrounding landscape is a mosaic of small-scale agriculture, primarily focused on clove, vanilla, and rice cultivation, interspersed with pockets of dense tropical forest. This agricultural activity contributes to seasonal particulate matter, particularly during harvesting periods. The urban–rural gradient transitions relatively quickly, with the city bordered by rural villages and agricultural lands. Elevation is generally low, rarely exceeding 30 meters above sea level, which can exacerbate the trapping of pollutants under certain meteorological conditions. The coastal location also means the city is susceptible to sea breezes, which can both disperse and concentrate pollutants depending on wind direction and stability. The prevailing winds, often influenced by monsoon patterns, play a crucial role in determining the distribution of air pollutants across the region, impacting Mandialaza’s air quality profile.

Mandialaza’s tropical climate dictates a distinct wet and dry season pattern, significantly impacting air quality throughout the year. The dry season, typically spanning from May to October, often sees a slight improvement in air quality due to increased wind speeds and reduced humidity. These winds help disperse pollutants, preventing their accumulation. However, this period also coincides with agricultural burning practices in the surrounding areas, releasing particulate matter into the atmosphere, particularly during land clearing and crop residue disposal. The wet season, from November to April, brings increased rainfall and higher humidity. While the rain helps to wash pollutants from the air, the increased humidity can trap moisture and contribute to the formation of fog, especially in the mornings. This fog, combined with reduced wind speeds, can lead to localized pockets of poor air quality. Temperature inversions, though less frequent than in temperate climates, can occasionally occur, trapping pollutants near the ground. During the peak of the wet season (January-February), heavy rainfall can temporarily improve air quality, but the subsequent damp conditions can promote the growth of mold and mildew, impacting indoor air quality. Sensitive groups, such as children, the elderly, and individuals with respiratory conditions, should exercise caution during agricultural burning periods and mornings with dense fog. Outdoor activities are generally more favorable during the drier months, but vigilance regarding agricultural smoke is still advised. The monsoon winds, shifting direction seasonally, influence the dispersal patterns, and understanding these shifts is key to anticipating air quality fluctuations.