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Vatomandry, a small coastal settlement within the Toamasina Province of Madagascar, occupies a geographically significant position on the Indian Ocean coastline. Situated at approximately -19.3279° latitude and 48.9815° longitude, the town’s immediate surroundings are characterized by a gently sloping terrain transitioning from sandy beaches to low-lying coastal plains. The landscape is dominated by the presence of the Indian Ocean to the east, providing a constant maritime influence. Inland, the terrain gradually rises, blending into a mosaic of agricultural land and scattered pockets of dense tropical forest. This proximity to agricultural zones, particularly those cultivating vanilla, cloves, and rice, introduces potential sources of biomass burning, especially during harvest seasons. Toamasina, Madagascar’s largest port city, lies a short distance north, and its industrial activities, including processing of agricultural products and some light manufacturing, can contribute to regional air pollution, with potential impacts on Vatomandry. The urban–rural gradient is relatively sharp; Vatomandry itself is a small, primarily residential area, while the influence of Toamasina’s urban sprawl and industrial belt is felt in the surrounding areas. The elevation is minimal, rarely exceeding 30 meters above sea level, which can exacerbate the trapping of pollutants under certain meteorological conditions. The prevailing winds, generally easterly, play a crucial role in dispersing or concentrating airborne particles, influenced by the surrounding topography and the ocean’s thermal dynamics. The coastal location also means the town is susceptible to sea breezes, which can temporarily improve air quality by flushing out pollutants.

Vatomandry’s tropical climate dictates a distinct wet and dry season pattern, significantly influencing air quality dynamics. The wet season, typically spanning November to April, brings frequent rainfall and high humidity. While the rain naturally helps to cleanse the atmosphere by removing particulate matter, the increased humidity can also contribute to the formation of ground-level ozone, particularly during periods of intense solar radiation following rainfall. The dry season, from May to October, is characterized by lower rainfall and higher temperatures. This period often sees a build-up of pollutants due to reduced precipitation and increased evaporation, leading to higher concentrations of dust and potentially biomass smoke from agricultural practices. During the dry season, particularly in August and September, the risk of haze and reduced visibility increases. Temperature inversions, where cooler air is trapped beneath a layer of warmer air, are less frequent than in temperate climates but can occur, especially during calmer periods, leading to pollutant accumulation near the ground. Sea breezes, common throughout the year, generally provide some ventilation, but their effectiveness is reduced during periods of stagnant air. Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly, and individuals with respiratory conditions, should exercise caution during the dry season, particularly during agricultural burning periods. Outdoor activities are generally more favourable during the wet season, although pollen levels may be elevated during certain periods. The intensity of the monsoon winds also influences the dispersal of pollutants, with stronger winds generally leading to better air quality.