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Milenaka, a small city in the Toliara Province of Madagascar, occupies a unique geographical position along the southwest coast. Situated at coordinates -22.8386, 43.5849, the city’s terrain is largely defined by its proximity to the Mozambique Channel and the arid spiny forest ecosystem that dominates much of southern Madagascar. The elevation is low-lying, contributing to limited natural dispersion of pollutants. Milenaka’s urban character is relatively undeveloped, transitioning quickly into rural landscapes dominated by subsistence agriculture – primarily small-scale farming and pastoralism. This urban-rural gradient is crucial; seasonal burning for land preparation in surrounding agricultural zones is a significant contributor to particulate matter. The coastal location introduces the influence of sea breezes, which can both dilute and transport pollutants. However, during periods of calm, temperature inversions can trap pollutants close to the ground. There are no major industrial belts within Milenaka itself, but the port activity associated with Toliara (approximately 40km north) and the increasing use of diesel generators for power contribute to localised emissions. The surrounding landscape offers limited natural filtration of airborne particles, exacerbating air quality challenges.

Milenaka experiences a distinct wet and dry season, heavily influencing its air quality. The dry season, roughly from April to November, is characterised by strong winds carrying dust from the interior and increased burning for agricultural purposes, leading to a peak in particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10). October and November are typically the months with the poorest air quality. The winds, while aiding dispersion at times, also transport pollutants from distant sources. The wet season, from December to March, brings relief through rainfall which effectively washes particulate matter from the air. However, increased humidity can also promote the formation of mould and other biological pollutants. January and February generally offer the best air quality. Temperature inversions, common during the cooler nights of the dry season, trap pollutants near ground level, worsening conditions. Sensitive groups – children, the elderly, and those with respiratory conditions – should limit outdoor activity during the peak dry season months and consider using masks when dust levels are high. Monitoring wind direction is crucial; winds from inland agricultural areas signal potentially poorer air quality.