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Lambidou, nestled within the Kayes Region of Mali, occupies a geographically significant position on the edge of the Sahel, a transitional zone between the Sahara Desert and the Sudanian Savanna. Located at approximately 14.3122° N, 9.5508° W, the city’s terrain is predominantly characterized by gently undulating plains, part of the larger Bani Ullo plain, with elevations rarely exceeding 300 meters above sea level. This relatively flat landscape, while facilitating urban expansion, also contributes to air quality challenges. Lambidou sits near the Niger River basin, though direct proximity to the river is limited, influencing local humidity and potential for fog formation, particularly during the cooler months. The surrounding landscape is a mosaic of agricultural fields – primarily cultivating millet, sorghum, and maize – interspersed with sparse acacia woodlands and grasslands. This agricultural activity, coupled with traditional burning practices for land clearing and crop residue management, represents a significant source of particulate matter. To the west, the landscape gradually transitions into more arid Sahelian conditions, while eastward, it blends into denser savanna vegetation. The urban–rural gradient around Lambidou is relatively sharp; the city’s influence extends outwards through agricultural zones, but beyond that lies a predominantly rural, pastoral setting. The lack of significant topographic barriers means that pollutants released within Lambidou and from surrounding agricultural areas can readily disperse, but also accumulate under certain meteorological conditions, impacting local air quality.

Lambidou’s air quality follows a distinct seasonal pattern dictated by its semi-arid climate. The dry season, spanning roughly from November to May, presents the most significant air quality concerns. During these months, lower rainfall and reduced vegetation cover lead to increased dust emissions from agricultural lands and unpaved roads, contributing to elevated particulate matter concentrations. Temperature inversions, common during the cooler nights of December and January, trap pollutants near the ground, exacerbating the problem. Wind patterns during this period are often variable, sometimes bringing in dust from the Sahara, further degrading air quality. The Harmattan wind, a dry, dusty trade wind, can significantly impact visibility and respiratory health. Conversely, the rainy season (June to October) generally brings improved air quality due to increased rainfall, which washes pollutants from the atmosphere, and higher humidity, which helps to settle dust particles. However, periods of intense rainfall can lead to flooding, which can release pollutants from contaminated sites. The months of March and April, as the dry season transitions to the rainy season, often experience a surge in dust and smoke from agricultural burning, making them particularly challenging for outdoor activity. Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly, and individuals with respiratory conditions, should exercise caution during the dry season, limiting prolonged outdoor exposure and wearing appropriate masks when necessary. During the rainy season, while overall air quality improves, vigilance regarding waterborne diseases is crucial.