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Safo, situated in the Koulikoro Region of Mali, lies at coordinates 12.7675°N, -7.9236°W, a location deeply embedded within the Sahelian landscape. The city’s terrain is generally flat, characteristic of the inner Niger Delta, with a subtle slope towards the Niger River, which flows nearby but doesn’t directly border Safo. The surrounding area is predominantly savannah grassland, transitioning to more arid conditions further north. With a population of approximately 16,066, Safo represents a crucial market town and administrative centre for the surrounding rural communities. Its urban character is defined by a relatively low-density settlement pattern, reflecting its role as a service hub rather than a major industrial centre. However, increasing agricultural activity in the region – primarily subsistence farming and livestock rearing – contributes to localised dust and biomass burning, impacting air quality. The urban-rural gradient is sharp, with immediate surroundings dominated by agricultural land and sparse vegetation. The lack of significant industrial belts within Safo itself means that the primary air quality concerns stem from regional sources and domestic fuel use. The prevailing winds, influenced by the Harmattan and monsoon patterns, play a significant role in dispersing or concentrating pollutants. This geographical positioning makes Safo particularly vulnerable to dust transport from the Sahara Desert.

Safo experiences a distinct wet and dry season, heavily influencing its air quality. The dry season, roughly from November to May, is characterised by consistently high temperatures and low humidity. This period sees a peak in particulate matter pollution, driven by widespread biomass burning for land clearing in preparation for the agricultural season, and the resuspension of dust from agricultural activities and Sahara Desert intrusions. Harmattan winds exacerbate this, carrying fine dust particles across the region. January to March are typically the months with the poorest air quality. The transition to the wet season, around June, brings a temporary improvement as rainfall suppresses dust and reduces burning. However, increased humidity can also foster mold growth, potentially impacting respiratory health. The wet season, lasting from June to October, generally offers the best air quality, with rainfall effectively cleansing the atmosphere. However, localised flooding can create stagnant water, leading to increased mosquito populations and associated health risks. November sees a gradual deterioration as the dry season approaches. Sensitive groups – children, the elderly, and those with respiratory conditions – should limit outdoor exposure during the peak dry season months and consider using masks when dust levels are high.