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Toukoroba, nestled within the Koulikoro Region of Mali, occupies a geographically significant position along the Niger River’s floodplain. Located at approximately 13.6083° latitude and -7.0389° longitude, the town’s terrain is predominantly flat, characteristic of the Sahelian zone. The surrounding landscape is a mosaic of savanna grasslands, interspersed with acacia woodlands and agricultural fields, reflecting the region’s semi-arid climate. The Niger River, a vital artery for both transportation and irrigation, exerts a considerable influence on the local microclimate, contributing to higher humidity levels compared to more inland areas. Toukoroba’s urban character is that of a small, developing settlement, primarily reliant on agriculture and limited local trade. The urban–rural gradient is gradual, with agricultural activities extending almost seamlessly into the town’s periphery. There are no major industrial belts immediately adjacent to Toukoroba; however, agricultural practices, particularly the burning of vegetation for land clearing and crop residue management, represent a significant localized source of air pollutants. The relatively flat topography and limited natural barriers can exacerbate the dispersion of these pollutants, particularly during periods of low wind. The elevation is low, contributing to potential temperature inversions during cooler months, which can trap pollutants near the ground. The proximity to the Niger River also introduces the potential for waterborne pollutants to become aerosolized, impacting air quality, though this is likely a secondary concern compared to agricultural emissions.

Toukoroba’s air quality is intrinsically linked to its distinct wet and dry seasons. The dry season, typically spanning from November to May, presents the most significant air quality challenges. During this period, reduced rainfall and consistently high temperatures lead to increased dust and particulate matter concentrations. Agricultural practices, particularly the widespread burning of fields to prepare for planting, release substantial quantities of smoke and pollutants into the atmosphere. Wind patterns during the dry season are often variable, sometimes leading to stagnant air conditions that trap these emissions. Temperature inversions, common during the cooler mornings of the dry season, further exacerbate this issue, preventing vertical mixing and concentrating pollutants at ground level. The months of February and March are particularly concerning due to peak burning activity. The onset of the rainy season (June to October) brings a marked improvement in air quality. Rainfall effectively washes pollutants from the atmosphere, and increased humidity reduces dust levels. However, periods of intense rainfall can lead to localized flooding, potentially releasing mold spores and other allergens into the air. During the transition months (May and November), air quality can be unpredictable, fluctuating between dry season conditions and the cleansing effects of the rains. Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly, and individuals with respiratory conditions, should exercise caution during the dry season, limiting outdoor activities during peak burning periods and seeking shelter indoors when smoke is prevalent. Maintaining good hydration and using appropriate respiratory protection can also mitigate potential health impacts.