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Kona, situated within the Mopti region of Mali, is a city deeply interwoven with the Niger River’s influence. Located at approximately 14.9467°N, -3.8933°E, the city occupies a relatively flat terrain typical of the Inland Niger Delta, though subtle elevation changes exist due to fluvial processes. The surrounding landscape is dominated by floodplains, seasonally inundated grasslands, and scattered acacia woodlands. Kona’s position along the Niger River is crucial; the river serves as a vital transportation artery and source of irrigation, supporting significant agricultural activity – primarily rice cultivation – in the surrounding areas. This agricultural land use, while essential for the local economy, contributes to particulate matter through dust from farming and potential burning of agricultural residue. The urban-rural gradient is relatively sharp, with Kona acting as a regional market centre for surrounding villages. The city’s air quality is further impacted by its location within the Sahel region, prone to dust storms originating from the Sahara Desert, particularly during the dry season. Limited industrial activity within Kona itself means that the primary pollution sources are largely related to transport, domestic fuel burning (wood and charcoal), and regional agricultural practices. The river’s presence also influences local humidity and temperature, affecting pollutant dispersion.

Kona experiences a distinct wet and dry season, profoundly impacting air quality. The dry season, roughly from November to May, is characterised by consistently high temperatures and low humidity. This period sees a significant increase in airborne dust, both locally generated from agricultural activities and transported from the Sahara Desert. Harmattan winds, prevalent during these months, exacerbate dust levels, reducing visibility and increasing particulate matter concentrations. February and March are typically the dustiest months, posing risks to respiratory health. The transition to the wet season, beginning around June, brings relief. Rainfall effectively suppresses dust, and increased humidity causes pollutants to settle. However, the wet season also sees increased biomass burning for land clearing and agricultural preparation, contributing to localised smoke pollution, particularly in July and August. September and October offer the clearest air, with consistent rainfall and reduced wind speeds. Sensitive groups – children, the elderly, and those with pre-existing respiratory conditions – should limit outdoor exposure during peak dust periods (February-March) and be mindful of smoke during the early wet season (July-August). Monitoring local conditions and using masks when dust levels are high is advisable.