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Mopti, Mali, a relatively small city within the larger municipality of Moninnpébougou in the Ségou Region, occupies a geographically significant position within the Sahelian zone of West Africa. Situated at approximately 14.1508° latitude and -5.5208° longitude, the city’s terrain is predominantly flat, characteristic of the surrounding inland delta of the Niger River. This low elevation, averaging around 200 meters above sea level, contributes to a tendency for stagnant air conditions, particularly during certain times of the year. The landscape surrounding Moninnpébougou is a mosaic of savanna grasslands, riverine forests, and agricultural fields, reflecting the region’s reliance on subsistence farming. The Niger River, though not directly adjacent to the city, exerts a considerable influence on the local climate and hydrology, impacting humidity levels and seasonal rainfall patterns. The urban–rural gradient transitions rapidly from the city’s limited built-up area to extensive agricultural zones, where millet, sorghum, and maize are cultivated. While Moninnpébougou lacks major industrial belts, the presence of small-scale workshops and markets, often utilizing traditional fuel sources like wood and charcoal, contributes to localized air pollution. The city’s regional position, acting as a local trading hub, also means increased vehicular traffic, further impacting air quality. The flat topography and limited natural ventilation exacerbate the potential for pollutants to accumulate, especially when combined with seasonal meteorological conditions.

Moninnpébougou experiences a distinct wet and dry season, profoundly influencing its air quality profile. The dry season, typically spanning from November to May, is characterized by intense sunshine, high temperatures, and significantly reduced rainfall. This period often sees a build-up of particulate matter due to the prevalence of wood and charcoal burning for cooking and heating, coupled with increased dust lifted by the persistent Harmattan winds blowing from the Sahara. Temperature inversions, common during the cooler nights of the dry season, trap pollutants close to the ground, worsening air quality. The Harmattan, a dry and dusty trade wind, carries fine particles across vast distances, impacting Moninnpébougou’s air quality even when local emissions are relatively low. Conversely, the wet season (June to October) brings relief through frequent rainfall, which naturally washes away pollutants and increases atmospheric humidity, diluting concentrations. However, periods of intense rainfall can also lead to flooding, which can release mould spores and other allergens into the air. The transition months (May and November) are particularly variable, with shifting wind patterns and unpredictable rainfall. Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly, and individuals with respiratory conditions, should exercise caution during the dry season, limiting outdoor activities during peak pollution periods, typically in January and February. During the wet season, those with allergies should be mindful of potential mould exposure following heavy rainfall events. Maintaining good ventilation indoors and avoiding burning biomass fuels are crucial year-round strategies for minimizing exposure.