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Bandipur, nestled in the hills of central Nepal at coordinates 27.9381, 84.4069, presents a unique geographic context influencing its air quality. This Newari town, home to approximately 12,450 residents, is perched on a ridge between the Marsyangdi and Kali Khola valleys, at an elevation of around 1,000 meters. The surrounding landscape is dominated by the Mahabharat Range, creating a bowl-like topography that can trap pollutants. Unlike cities directly adjacent to the Indo-Gangetic Plain, Bandipur benefits from some degree of atmospheric flushing due to its elevation and exposure to winds from the Himalayas. However, this is not always sufficient. The urban-rural gradient is steep; Bandipur itself is relatively compact, but the surrounding areas are largely agricultural, with terraced farming common on the slopes. While not a major industrial hub, brick kilns and small-scale industries in the nearby Tanahun district contribute to regional particulate matter. The proximity to the Marsyangdi River offers some natural dispersion, but prevailing winds often channel pollutants along the valleys, impacting air quality within the town, particularly during calm conditions. The terrain’s complexity means pollution dispersal is highly localised and dependent on microclimatic conditions.

Bandipur’s air quality follows a distinct seasonal pattern dictated by Nepal’s monsoon and post-monsoon climate. The pre-monsoon season (March-May) sees rising temperatures and dry conditions, leading to increased dust and particulate matter from construction and agricultural activities. This is often the poorest air quality period. The monsoon (June-September) brings relief, with rainfall effectively washing away pollutants, resulting in cleaner air. However, increased humidity can also foster mold growth, impacting respiratory health. October-November, the post-monsoon season, offers the clearest skies and most favourable air quality, with stable atmospheric conditions and moderate temperatures. This is the best time for outdoor activities. Winter (December-February) brings temperature inversions, trapping cold air and pollutants in the valleys, leading to a build-up of smoke from household heating and cooking, particularly wood and biomass burning. Sensitive groups – children, the elderly, and those with respiratory conditions – should limit outdoor exposure during pre-monsoon and winter months. Monitoring wind patterns is crucial; southerly winds can bring pollutants from the densely populated Kathmandu Valley, while northerly winds generally offer cleaner air from the Himalayas.