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Leusden, nestled within the province of Utrecht in the Netherlands, occupies a geographically significant position within the Randstad, the country’s densely populated urban area. Located approximately 10 kilometers southeast of Amersfoort and 25 kilometers east of Utrecht, Leusden’s landscape is characterized by a gentle transition between urban and rural environments. The terrain is predominantly flat, typical of the Dutch landscape, with elevations rarely exceeding 30 meters above sea level. This flatness, while beneficial for transportation, can exacerbate air quality issues as it limits vertical dispersion of pollutants. The city is bordered by agricultural land, primarily used for arable farming and horticulture, contributing to potential sources of ammonia emissions, a significant air pollutant in the Netherlands. To the west, the Veluwe forest provides a natural buffer, offering some filtration of airborne particles, though its influence is limited by the city’s proximity to the urban core. The absence of major rivers directly bordering Leusden means water bodies play a minimal role in air quality regulation. The urban–rural gradient is gradual, with residential areas blending seamlessly into agricultural fields and wooded areas, creating a unique semi-rural character. The proximity to the A28 motorway, a major transportation artery, introduces a constant source of vehicular emissions, a key factor influencing local air quality. The surrounding landscape, a mix of cultivated fields, scattered woodlands, and residential developments, collectively shapes Leusden’s vulnerability to both regional and local pollution sources.

Leusden’s air quality experiences a distinct seasonal pattern dictated by meteorological conditions. Spring (March-May) often sees elevated ammonia levels due to increased agricultural activity, including fertilizer application and livestock farming, combined with relatively stable atmospheric conditions. The warming temperatures encourage biological processes that release ammonia into the air. Summer (June-August) generally brings improved air quality, thanks to more frequent and stronger winds that disperse pollutants. However, periods of high pressure and stagnant air can lead to localized pollution episodes, particularly near the A28. Autumn (September-November) presents a mixed picture. While wind patterns tend to be more favorable than spring, cooler temperatures can lead to temperature inversions, trapping pollutants close to the ground, especially during calmer nights. Fog, common in autumn, further exacerbates this issue by reducing visibility and hindering dispersion. Winter (December-February) is often the most challenging season. Cold temperatures and frequent temperature inversions create stable atmospheric conditions, allowing pollutants to accumulate. The use of heating systems, both residential and commercial, contributes to particulate matter and nitrogen dioxide concentrations. Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly, and individuals with respiratory conditions, should limit prolonged outdoor activity during periods of stagnant air, particularly in the mornings and evenings. During spring and autumn, awareness of agricultural emissions is crucial, and avoiding areas near intensive farming operations during peak activity is advisable. Overall, the variability in wind patterns and temperature regimes significantly influences Leusden’s air quality throughout the year.