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Chaman, situated in Balochistan, Pakistan (30.9222° N, 66.4447° E), occupies a strategically vital, yet geographically challenging, position. The city lies close to the border with Afghanistan, functioning as a major trade and transit hub. Its terrain is defined by the foothills of the Sulaiman Mountains, creating a landscape of rugged hills and narrow valleys. Chaman’s elevation, approximately 1,630 meters (5,348 feet), influences its climate and air circulation patterns. The surrounding landscape is largely arid and semi-arid, with sparse vegetation. While not directly adjacent to a major body of water, the city’s water supply relies on groundwater and seasonal streams originating in the mountains. The urban-rural gradient is sharp; Chaman itself is a relatively concentrated urban centre, quickly transitioning to sparsely populated rural areas and agricultural lands further from the city core. Dust from these agricultural activities, combined with cross-border traffic and limited industrial regulation, significantly impacts local air quality. The city’s location within a valley can exacerbate pollution events by trapping emissions and hindering dispersion, particularly during periods of calm weather. The constant flow of vehicles, especially trucks, contributes heavily to particulate matter concentrations.

Chaman experiences a distinct seasonal air quality pattern dictated by its arid climate and regional weather systems. Summer (May-August) brings hot, dry conditions and increased dust storms originating from the surrounding barren lands, leading to elevated particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5) levels. The lack of rainfall during this period prevents natural cleansing of the atmosphere. Autumn (September-November) offers a brief respite with cooler temperatures and occasional rainfall, improving air quality temporarily. However, temperature inversions can become common, trapping pollutants near the ground. Winter (December-February) is characterized by cold temperatures and frequent fog, exacerbating respiratory issues and trapping pollutants. Smoke from domestic heating using wood and coal further degrades air quality. Spring (March-April) sees a gradual warming trend and increased wind activity, which can both disperse pollutants and stir up dust. Sensitive groups – children, the elderly, and those with respiratory conditions – should avoid prolonged outdoor activity during summer and winter months. Monitoring wind patterns is crucial; periods of calm are particularly hazardous. The monsoon season, though limited in Balochistan, can provide temporary relief through rainfall, but also increases humidity which can affect pollutant behaviour.