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Ratodero, nestled in the Sindh province of Pakistan (27.8000° N, 68.2833° E), occupies a geographically significant position within the Indus Plain. The city’s terrain is predominantly flat, characteristic of the fertile alluvial plains formed by the Indus River and its tributaries. Its location, approximately 25 kilometers northeast of Larkana, places it within a region heavily reliant on agriculture, particularly cotton, sugarcane, and mango cultivation. This agricultural intensity contributes significantly to the regional atmospheric profile. The surrounding landscape is a mosaic of cultivated fields, interspersed with small villages and occasional groves of date palms, typical of the lower Sindh region. The urban–rural gradient around Ratodero is gradual, with agricultural land extending almost seamlessly into the city limits, blurring the distinction between urban and rural environments. Elevation is minimal, rarely exceeding 30 meters above sea level, which can exacerbate air quality issues by limiting atmospheric dispersion. While Ratodero is not directly adjacent to a major river, its proximity to the Indus River system means it is susceptible to seasonal flooding and humidity, influencing local weather patterns and pollutant behaviour. The absence of significant industrial belts within the immediate vicinity is somewhat offset by the agricultural practices – including burning of crop residue – and the transportation of agricultural produce, both of which contribute to localized air pollution. The flat topography and prevailing wind patterns often trap pollutants, particularly during periods of low wind speed.

Ratodero’s air quality experiences a distinct seasonal cycle heavily influenced by the monsoon climate of Sindh. The dry season, typically spanning from October to April, witnesses a gradual increase in pollution levels. November and December often see the worst conditions, driven by the widespread practice of crop residue burning following the cotton harvest. This releases substantial particulate matter and other pollutants into the atmosphere. Temperature inversions, common during these cooler months, trap pollutants close to the ground, further worsening air quality. January and February are often characterized by dense fog, which further concentrates pollutants and reduces visibility. The monsoon season, from June to September, brings relief through increased rainfall and stronger winds, which help to disperse pollutants. However, the monsoon also introduces humidity, which can exacerbate respiratory issues for sensitive individuals. The pre-monsoon period (April-May) sees a gradual warming and a slight decrease in pollution compared to the peak of the dry season, but dust storms are common, contributing to particulate matter. The best time for outdoor activity is generally during the monsoon months (July-August), when rainfall and wind patterns offer some respite from pollution. Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly, and individuals with respiratory conditions, should exercise caution during the dry season, particularly during crop residue burning periods, and avoid prolonged outdoor exposure when fog is present. Maintaining indoor air quality through ventilation and air purifiers is also advisable during these periods.