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Kolambugan, nestled in the province of Lanao del Norte, Philippines (8.1144°N, 123.8971°E), occupies a strategic coastal position along Panguil Bay. The city’s terrain is relatively flat, typical of alluvial plains formed by the river systems draining from the nearby mountains. This low elevation, combined with its proximity to the bay, significantly influences local air quality. Kolambugan isn’t a heavily industrialised centre, but serves as a key agricultural trading hub for the surrounding region, particularly for rice, corn, and coconut. The surrounding landscape is a mosaic of agricultural lands, interspersed with patches of mangrove forests along the coastline and the foothills of the mountains to the east. The urban-rural gradient is quite sharp; the city centre is densely populated, transitioning quickly to rural farmland. This proximity to agricultural activities introduces potential sources of particulate matter from land preparation, harvesting, and the use of agricultural chemicals. Furthermore, the bay’s limited tidal flushing can trap pollutants, exacerbating air quality issues. The prevailing winds, influenced by the Philippine monsoon system, play a crucial role in dispersing or concentrating these pollutants. The city’s location within a tropical climate means consistent high humidity and temperatures, impacting pollutant chemistry and dispersion.

Kolambugan experiences a distinct wet and dry season, heavily influencing its air quality. The dry season, typically from February to May, sees a peak in particulate matter. Reduced rainfall means less atmospheric cleansing, and agricultural activities like land preparation and burning of agricultural waste increase significantly. Stable atmospheric conditions during this period, coupled with higher temperatures, can lead to temperature inversions, trapping pollutants near the ground. Conversely, the wet season, from June to November, brings relief. Monsoon rains effectively wash pollutants from the atmosphere, resulting in generally improved air quality. However, increased humidity can promote the formation of mould and mildew, impacting indoor air quality. December and January represent a transitional period, with fluctuating rainfall and moderate pollution levels. For those with respiratory sensitivities, avoiding outdoor exertion during the peak dry season months of March and April is advisable. The northeast monsoon, bringing cooler and wetter conditions from November to February, generally offers the most favourable air quality for outdoor activities. Monitoring wind direction is crucial; winds from agricultural areas can carry higher concentrations of particulate matter.