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Harinākunda, a small city nestled within the Khulna Division of Bangladesh, presents a unique geographic context influencing its air quality. Located at approximately 23.65°N latitude and 89.03°E longitude, the city occupies a relatively low-lying area of the Ganges Delta, a vast network of distributaries and waterways. The terrain is predominantly flat, typical of this deltaic plain, with an elevation barely above sea level, making it susceptible to flooding during the monsoon season. Surrounding Harinākunda is a landscape dominated by agricultural lands, primarily rice paddies, interspersed with small pockets of mangrove forests further south towards the Sundarbans. The urban-rural gradient is quite sharp; Harinākunda itself is a concentrated settlement, quickly giving way to agricultural fields. While not a major industrial hub, the proximity to Khulna city, a significant industrial centre, contributes to regional pollution transport. The seasonal inundation of fields and the prevalence of biomass burning for cooking and agricultural residue disposal are key local factors. This flat topography and limited natural ventilation exacerbate the concentration of pollutants, particularly during periods of calm weather. The city’s location within the humid subtropical climate zone further influences pollutant dispersion and chemical reactions.

Harinākunda’s air quality follows a distinct seasonal pattern dictated by the monsoon and post-monsoon climate. The pre-monsoon months (March-May) typically see a deterioration in air quality. Rising temperatures and stagnant air create conditions for pollutant build-up, compounded by increased agricultural burning to prepare fields for planting. Dust from construction and unpaved roads also contributes. The monsoon season (June-October) generally brings temporary relief. Heavy rainfall effectively washes away particulate matter, and increased wind speeds aid dispersion. However, high humidity can promote the formation of secondary pollutants. November-February represents the post-monsoon period, often experiencing the poorest air quality. Cooler temperatures lead to temperature inversions, trapping pollutants near the ground. This coincides with increased use of solid fuels for heating and cooking. Fog, common during these months, further reduces visibility and exacerbates pollution. Sensitive groups – children, the elderly, and those with respiratory conditions – should limit outdoor activity during November-February. Avoiding peak hours near roads and agricultural areas is advisable. During the monsoon, while particulate matter is lower, mould growth indoors can pose respiratory risks, requiring good ventilation.