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Massé, located in the Plateau region of Benin (coordinates 7.1578° N, 2.5436° E), occupies a geographically transitional zone between the wooded savannah and the fringes of the Atlantica forests. The city’s terrain is gently undulating, characterized by reddish-brown lateritic soils typical of the region, which can contribute to dust generation during the dry season. Situated approximately 250km north of Cotonou, Benin’s economic capital and primary port, Massé benefits from, and is subtly influenced by, the broader regional economic activity. The surrounding landscape is predominantly agricultural, with small-scale farming of crops like maize, cassava, and vegetables dominating the rural areas immediately adjacent to the urban boundary. This agricultural activity, while vital for local livelihoods, can contribute to localized air pollution through the burning of agricultural waste and the use of fertilizers. The urban–rural gradient around Massé is relatively gradual, with scattered villages and agricultural plots interspersed within the expanding peri-urban area. The city’s elevation is relatively low, averaging around 30 meters above sea level, which limits natural dispersion of pollutants. While not directly bordering a major river, Massé draws water from smaller streams and boreholes, and the local climate is influenced by the proximity of the Atlantic coast, bringing occasional sea breezes. The absence of significant heavy industry within Massé itself means that pollution sources are primarily related to vehicular traffic, residential cooking (often using wood or charcoal), and agricultural practices in the surrounding area, creating a unique air quality profile.

Massé’s tropical climate dictates a distinct wet and dry season pattern, profoundly impacting air quality. The dry season, typically spanning November to March, is characterized by lower humidity and increased wind speeds, but also by a significant rise in particulate matter. The combination of dry, dusty conditions and agricultural burning practices leads to elevated levels of dust and smoke, particularly during land clearing activities. Temperature inversions, though less frequent than in colder climates, can occasionally trap pollutants near the ground, exacerbating the situation. The harmattan winds, originating from the Sahara, frequently bring Saharan dust plumes, further degrading air quality. Conversely, the wet season (April to October) brings relief as rainfall washes away particulate matter and increased humidity reduces dust generation. However, periods of intense rainfall can lead to flooding, which can stir up pollutants from the ground and temporarily worsen air quality. Fog, though infrequent, can occur during the transition periods, trapping pollutants and reducing visibility. Outdoor activities are generally best enjoyed during the wet season months of June to September, when rainfall is more consistent. Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly, and individuals with respiratory conditions, should exercise caution during the dry season, particularly during periods of agricultural burning or when harmattan winds are prevalent. Minimizing exposure to smoke and dust, and using appropriate respiratory protection when necessary, are crucial preventative measures.