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Manzhouli, situated in Inner Mongolia, China, occupies a unique geographic position as a crucial border city connecting China with Russia. Located at coordinates 49.5980° N, 117.3790° E, the city rests on the northeastern edge of the Hulunbuir grassland, a vast steppe landscape. The terrain is generally flat, with a modest elevation contributing to limited natural air dispersion. Manzhouli is not directly adjacent to major bodies of water, though the nearby Halha River influences local humidity. Its significance stems from being a major rail hub and port of entry, facilitating substantial cross-border trade. This concentration of transport infrastructure, including rail yards and trucking routes, is a primary driver of localised pollution. The surrounding region is characterised by a gradient from urban centre to expansive agricultural lands and grasslands. The city’s growth is intrinsically linked to its role as a logistical centre, leading to increased industrial activity and associated emissions. The urban-rural fringe experiences a blend of agricultural practices and expanding residential areas, impacting air quality through seasonal burning of crop residue and domestic heating. The prevailing winds, often from the north and northwest, can transport pollutants across the city and potentially into neighbouring regions, exacerbating air quality concerns.

Manzhouli experiences a harsh continental climate, profoundly influencing its air quality. Winters (November to February) are exceptionally cold and long, with temperatures frequently plummeting below -20°C. This period sees a surge in coal combustion for heating, resulting in elevated levels of particulate matter, particularly PM2.5 and PM10. Temperature inversions are common, trapping pollutants near the ground. Spring (March to May) brings a gradual warming trend, but dust storms originating from the Gobi Desert frequently impact air quality, increasing particulate matter concentrations. Summer (June to August) offers relatively cleaner air, with prevailing winds aiding dispersion and rainfall scavenging pollutants. However, increased traffic and industrial activity can still lead to localised pollution. Autumn (September to October) is a transitional period, with decreasing temperatures and the resumption of heating, leading to a gradual deterioration in air quality. Sensitive groups – children, the elderly, and those with respiratory conditions – should limit outdoor exposure during winter and spring. Avoid strenuous activity outdoors during dust storm events. The months of June to August generally offer the most favourable conditions for outdoor activities, though monitoring conditions remains prudent.