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Kasangulu, nestled within the Kongo Central province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, occupies a geographically significant position at approximately -4.5911° latitude and 15.1703° longitude. The city’s terrain is characterized by a gently undulating landscape, transitioning from the dense, equatorial rainforest to more open savanna-like areas as one moves outwards. Situated relatively close to the Congo River, though not directly on its banks, Kasangulu benefits from the region’s humid climate and the influence of the river’s vast watershed. The surrounding landscape is dominated by agricultural lands, primarily small-scale farming operations cultivating cassava, maize, and plantains, interspersed with patches of dense forest. This proximity to agricultural zones contributes to localized air quality concerns, particularly during burning seasons. The urban–rural gradient around Kasangulu is gradual, with small villages and agricultural plots blending seamlessly into the city’s periphery. The elevation is relatively low, averaging around 600 meters above sea level, which can exacerbate the trapping of pollutants, especially during periods of atmospheric stability. While not directly adjacent to major industrial belts, Kasangulu’s location within Kongo Central, a region experiencing increasing resource extraction and agricultural intensification, means it is indirectly influenced by regional pollution sources. The prevailing winds, generally from the south-east, can carry pollutants from further afield, impacting local air quality. The city’s compact urban form, with a relatively small population of 27,961, suggests a primarily residential and agricultural-dependent economy, which influences the types and sources of air pollution present.

Kasangulu experiences a tropical climate with distinct wet and dry seasons, significantly influencing its air quality profile. The wet season, typically spanning from October to May, brings frequent rainfall and high humidity. While the rain naturally helps to cleanse the atmosphere, reducing particulate matter, the increased humidity can trap gaseous pollutants, particularly those related to biomass burning. The dry season, from June to September, presents a more complex scenario. Reduced rainfall leads to a build-up of dust and particulate matter from agricultural activities and unpaved roads, a common feature in the region. Temperature inversions, where cooler air is trapped beneath a layer of warmer air, are more frequent during the dry season, particularly in the early morning hours. These inversions prevent pollutants from dispersing vertically, leading to localized concentrations. Agricultural burning, a traditional practice for land clearing and crop residue disposal, peaks during the transition from the wet to the dry season (August-September), releasing significant amounts of smoke and particulate matter. The prevailing south-easterly winds can exacerbate this issue, carrying smoke plumes over considerable distances. Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly, and individuals with respiratory conditions, should exercise caution during these periods, limiting outdoor activity and avoiding areas with visible smoke. During the wet season, while overall particulate levels may be lower, the increased humidity can aggravate respiratory issues for some. Maintaining indoor air quality through ventilation and avoiding exposure to mold growth is advisable. The intensity of the sun during the dry season also necessitates protection from ozone, a secondary pollutant formed in sunlight.