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Lukula, situated in the Kongo Central province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, occupies a geographically significant position within the Congo Basin. Located at approximately -5.4000 latitude and 12.9333 longitude, the city’s terrain is characterized by a gently undulating landscape, transitioning from the coastal plains towards the interior plateau. The surrounding landscape is dominated by dense tropical rainforest, a vital carbon sink and biodiversity hotspot, though increasingly impacted by agricultural expansion and logging. Lukula’s proximity to the Congo River, a major artery of the region, influences local climate patterns and provides a crucial transportation route. The river’s presence also contributes to humidity levels, which can affect the dispersion of pollutants. The urban–rural gradient around Lukula is relatively sharp; the city itself is a small settlement, quickly giving way to agricultural lands and then the dense rainforest. While not directly adjacent to major industrial belts, Lukula’s regional position means it is connected to larger economic hubs further inland, potentially experiencing indirect impacts from industrial emissions transported by prevailing winds. The elevation is relatively low, generally below 300 meters, which can exacerbate air quality issues as it limits vertical mixing and allows pollutants to accumulate closer to ground level. The surrounding rainforest, while generally beneficial for air quality, can also contribute to particulate matter during the dry season due to increased biomass burning for land clearing and agricultural purposes. The city’s small size and limited infrastructure mean that local sources, such as vehicle emissions and household cooking fires, are likely to have a disproportionately large impact on air quality.

Lukula’s tropical climate dictates a wet and dry season cycle, profoundly influencing its air quality. The wet season, typically spanning from October to May, brings frequent rainfall and high humidity. This generally leads to improved air quality as precipitation washes away particulate matter and dilutes gaseous pollutants. However, the increased humidity can also trap certain pollutants, particularly those that react with water vapor, creating localized smog events. The dry season, from June to September, presents a more challenging scenario. Reduced rainfall and lower humidity allow dust and particulate matter to accumulate. Biomass burning, a common practice for land clearing and agricultural purposes in the surrounding rainforest, significantly contributes to elevated levels of smoke and particulate pollution during these months. Temperature inversions, where cooler air is trapped beneath a layer of warmer air, are also more likely to occur during the dry season, further hindering the vertical dispersion of pollutants and concentrating them near the ground. Fog, particularly in the early mornings, can also trap pollutants, creating periods of poor air quality. Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly, and individuals with respiratory conditions, should exercise caution during the dry season, limiting outdoor activities during peak pollution periods, typically mid-morning and early afternoon. The prevalence of wood-fired cooking stoves in many households also contributes to indoor and outdoor air pollution, particularly during the dry season when ventilation is often reduced. Public health messaging should emphasize the importance of proper ventilation and alternative cooking methods to mitigate these risks.