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Tuban, located in East Java (Jawa Timur), Indonesia, occupies a strategically important coastal position on the Madura Strait. Its coordinates, -6.9000, 112.0500, place it within a relatively flat alluvial plain, a consequence of the Bengawan Solo River’s historical deposition. The surrounding landscape is a blend of agricultural land – primarily rice paddies and sugarcane fields – gradually transitioning to more rugged terrain further inland, dominated by the foothills of the northern slopes of the East Java volcanic arc. This proximity to agricultural zones introduces a seasonal element of biomass burning, particularly during land clearing and harvesting periods. The Madura Strait influences local weather patterns, bringing maritime breezes that can, at times, disperse pollutants, but also contributing to humidity and fog formation, which can trap pollutants under certain atmospheric conditions. Tuban’s urban character is developing, transitioning from a traditional trading port to a growing industrial hub, with a noticeable urban–rural gradient extending outwards from the city center. The presence of nearby industrial estates, including those focused on petrochemicals and fertilizer production, contributes to localized air pollution sources. Elevation is generally low, rarely exceeding 20 meters above sea level, which limits vertical mixing and can exacerbate ground-level pollutant concentrations. The city’s location within a densely populated region of Java means it is also susceptible to transboundary pollution from neighboring urban areas and industrial centers.

Tuban’s tropical climate dictates a distinct wet and dry season, profoundly impacting its air quality. The dry season, typically spanning from May to October, often witnesses a gradual increase in particulate matter concentrations. This is partly attributable to reduced rainfall, which limits the natural cleansing effect of precipitation, and increased biomass burning from agricultural practices. The drier air also promotes the formation of temperature inversions, particularly during calmer periods, trapping pollutants close to the ground. These inversions are more frequent during the mornings and evenings. The wet season, from November to April, generally brings improved air quality due to frequent rainfall and increased wind speeds, which disperse pollutants. However, periods of heavy fog, common during the wet season, can temporarily reduce visibility and trap pollutants, creating localized pockets of poor air quality. Months like July and August, within the dry season, often experience the most persistent periods of elevated particulate matter. Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly, and individuals with respiratory conditions, should exercise caution during these periods, limiting prolonged outdoor activity and avoiding areas near industrial zones. During the wet season, while overall air quality is better, periods of dense fog necessitate similar precautions. The monsoon winds, though generally beneficial for dispersion, can occasionally carry pollutants from other regions, impacting Tuban’s air quality. Maintaining awareness of local weather forecasts and minimizing exposure during periods of stagnant air is crucial for protecting respiratory health.