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Khāsh, situated in the Sīstān va Balūchestān province of Iran, occupies a challenging geographical position. Located at coordinates 28.2200° N, 61.2114° E, the city lies within a basin surrounded by the rugged mountains of the Makran Range. This basin topography, at an elevation of approximately 1,500 meters, significantly influences air quality by restricting atmospheric circulation and trapping pollutants. The surrounding landscape is predominantly arid and semi-arid, characterized by vast deserts and sparse vegetation. The city is relatively distant from major bodies of water, with the nearest significant water source being the Sea of Oman, over 200km to the south. Khāsh’s economy is largely based on agriculture, particularly date palm cultivation, and some limited industrial activity related to processing agricultural products. The urban-rural gradient is quite sharp; the city itself is a relatively small settlement surrounded by sparsely populated rural areas and nomadic communities. Dust storms originating from the surrounding deserts are a frequent occurrence, contributing substantially to particulate matter pollution. The limited rainfall and high evaporation rates exacerbate the dust issue, and the basin’s natural features hinder the dispersal of these airborne particles, creating a persistent air quality challenge. The terrain funnels winds, sometimes intensifying dust events.

Khāsh experiences a stark seasonal air quality pattern dictated by its arid climate. Summer (June-August) brings intense heat and strong winds, exacerbating dust storms originating from the surrounding deserts. These ‘120-day winds’ are a defining feature of the region, dramatically increasing particulate matter concentrations. While temperatures are high, the winds offer some dispersal, but the sheer volume of dust overwhelms this effect. Autumn (September-November) sees a gradual decrease in wind intensity, but temperatures remain warm, leading to potential temperature inversions that trap pollutants near the ground. Winter (December-February) is relatively calmer, with cooler temperatures and occasional rainfall, offering periods of improved air quality, though domestic heating using fossil fuels can contribute to localised pollution. Spring (March-May) is a transitional period, with increasing temperatures and the potential for dust storms as the winds pick up again. Sensitive groups – children, the elderly, and those with respiratory conditions – should avoid prolonged outdoor activity during the summer and spring months. Monitoring wind patterns and staying indoors during dust storms is crucial. The dry climate necessitates consistent hydration to mitigate the effects of inhaled particulate matter. Periods of rainfall in winter offer the best opportunities for outdoor activity.