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Lingayen, situated in the province of Pangasinan, Philippines (16.0167°N, 120.2333°E), is a coastal city deeply interwoven with the geography of the Lingayen Gulf. The city’s terrain is predominantly flat, characteristic of the central Luzon plain, with a low elevation that contributes to limited natural air dispersion. This flatness, combined with its proximity to the Gulf, means that sea breezes play a significant role in local weather patterns, but can also trap pollutants under stable atmospheric conditions. Lingayen’s urban character is a blend of provincial capital functions and a traditional fishing economy. Surrounding Lingayen are extensive agricultural lands, primarily rice paddies, which contribute to seasonal biomass burning, a key source of particulate matter. While not heavily industrialized itself, the city serves as a regional hub, experiencing increased vehicular traffic and associated emissions. The urban-rural gradient is relatively sharp, transitioning quickly to agricultural landscapes. The Gulf’s influence extends beyond weather; it impacts humidity levels and salt spray, potentially affecting corrosion and the deposition of marine aerosols. Understanding this interplay between coastal location, flat terrain, and surrounding land use is crucial for assessing and mitigating Lingayen’s air quality challenges. The city’s position makes it vulnerable to both local emissions and regional transport of pollutants.

Lingayen experiences a pronounced wet and dry season, heavily influencing its air quality. The dry season, typically from March to May, sees a peak in particulate matter pollution. This is largely due to increased agricultural burning as farmers prepare fields for planting, coupled with drier conditions that reduce atmospheric scavenging. Hotter temperatures during these months can also exacerbate ground-level ozone formation. Conversely, the wet season, from June to November, brings relief through monsoon rains that wash pollutants from the air. However, increased humidity can also promote the formation of mold and other biological pollutants indoors. December to February offers the most favourable air quality, with cooler temperatures and the influence of the northeast monsoon bringing cleaner air from over the Pacific Ocean. Strong winds during the monsoon season help disperse pollutants effectively. Sensitive groups – children, the elderly, and those with respiratory conditions – should be particularly cautious during the dry season, limiting outdoor exertion during peak hours. Fog can also occur during the cooler months, potentially trapping pollutants near the ground. Monitoring wind direction is key; winds from inland agricultural areas during the dry season are likely to carry higher pollution levels.