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Toviklin, nestled within the Couffo Prefecture of Benin, occupies a geographically significant position in the country’s northern region. Located at approximately 6.8333° latitude and 1.8167° longitude, the city’s terrain is characterized by undulating hills and valleys, typical of the derived savanna woodland that dominates the area. The elevation, while not dramatically high, contributes to localized microclimates and influences air circulation patterns. Toviklin sits on the edge of a transitional zone between the drier Sahelian region to the north and the more humid forest areas further south, impacting vegetation cover and potential sources of biomass burning. The surrounding landscape is a mosaic of small-scale agriculture – predominantly cocoa and coffee farming – interspersed with patches of forest and savanna. This agricultural activity, particularly during harvest and processing seasons, represents a key factor in local air quality. The urban–rural gradient around Toviklin is relatively gradual, with smaller villages and agricultural plots blending seamlessly into the city’s periphery. There are no major industrial belts immediately adjacent to Toviklin, but the city serves as a regional market town, leading to vehicular traffic and associated emissions. The lack of significant bodies of water nearby limits the natural cleansing effect of humidity and precipitation, potentially exacerbating the impact of pollutants. The prevailing winds, generally from the south-east, can carry pollutants from surrounding agricultural areas and distant urban centers, impacting Toviklin’s air quality.

Toviklin’s tropical climate dictates a distinct wet and dry season cycle, profoundly influencing its air quality. The dry season, typically spanning from November to March, presents the most significant air quality challenges. Reduced rainfall and lower humidity levels contribute to a build-up of particulate matter, particularly from agricultural practices like controlled burns for land clearing and crop residue disposal. These burns, a common practice in the surrounding cocoa and coffee farms, release significant quantities of smoke and aerosols into the atmosphere. Temperature inversions, more frequent during the cooler dry season nights, trap pollutants near the ground, further worsening conditions. The prevailing south-easterly winds, while generally dispersing pollutants, can sometimes become stagnant, allowing for localized accumulation. The wet season, from April to October, brings increased rainfall and higher humidity, naturally cleansing the air and reducing particulate concentrations. However, heavy rainfall can also lead to increased soil erosion and dust events, temporarily impacting air quality. Fog, occasionally occurring during the transition periods between seasons, can trap pollutants, creating localized pockets of poor air quality. Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly, and individuals with respiratory conditions, should exercise caution during the dry season, particularly during periods of agricultural burning. Limiting outdoor exertion and wearing appropriate masks can mitigate exposure. The months of January and February often experience the poorest air quality due to peak burning activity, while May and June typically offer the most favourable conditions.